Factors Affecting Tufa Degradation in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Tufa Deposited on Substrates and Its Rate of Growth
3.2. Tufa Deposition and Hydrochemistry
3.3. Roles of Diatoms in Tufa Deposition
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- During the study period, the average annual rate of tufa growth accompanied with algae deposition was low (75–332 μm/y), and significant differences resulted between selected sites in Jiuzhaigou.
- (2)
- Linear correlations showed that NO3−, SO42− and PO43− were major factors in the aquatic environment that inhibited tufa deposition. Significant differences resulted in PO43− and NO3− concentrations between sampled sites mainly because of tourist activity and nutrient enrichment in the water flow, as well as atmospheric precipitation, respectively.
- (3)
- Diatoms were associated frequently with tufa deposits. The deposits showed a non-isopachous characteristic because of the diatom’s growing habit of a random growth orientation. Tufa deposits with porous and crystalline structures formed with high tufa growth. In contrast, for low crystal growth, tufa contained more diatoms, and a loose structure was deposited.
- (4)
- Anthropogenic activities, including industrial pollution, automobile exhaust emissions and tourist activities, contributed to an increase in nutrients in the water. Nutrient accumulation promotes excessive diatom growth, which contributes to a loose tufa deposit structure. The stability and erosion resistance of tufa deposits were weakened. Hence, abundant diatom growth is unfavorable to tufa deposition.
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ford, T.D.; Pedley, H.M. A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world. Earth Sci. Rev. 1996, 41, 117–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pentecost, A. Travertine; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Dramis, F.; Fubelli, G. Holocene stages of tufa deposition/erosion in Ethiopia: The role of climate fluctuations and human impact. In Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly Conference, Vienna, Austria, 27 April–2 May 2014; European Geosciences Union: Munich, Germany, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Pentecost, A.; Zhang, Z. A note on freshwater research in China, with some observations on the algae from Doupe Pool, Guizhou Province. Freshw. Forum 2001, 15, 77–84. [Google Scholar]
- Jones, B.; Renaut, R.W. Calcareous Spring Deposits in Continental Settings. Dev. Sedimentol. 2010, 61, 177–224. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, J.; Zhang, D.D.; Wang, S.; Xiao, T.; Huang, R. Factors controlling tufa deposition in natural waters at waterfall sites. Sediment. Geol. 2004, 166, 353–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arenas, C.; Vázquez-Urbez, M.; Auqué, L.; Sancho, C.; Osácar, C.; Pardo, G. Intrinsic and extrinsic controls of spatial and temporal variations in modern fluvial tufa sedimentation: A thirteen-year record from a semi-arid environment. Sedimentology 2014, 61, 90–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fouke, B.W. Hot-spring Systems Geobiology: Abiotic and biotic influences on travertine formation at Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, USA. Sedimentology 2011, 58, 170–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Benedetto, F.; Montegrossi, G.; Minissale, A.; Pardi, L.A.; Romanelli, M.; Tassi, F.; Delgado Huertas, A.; Pampin, E.M.; Vaselli, O.; Borrini, D. Biotic and inorganic control on travertine deposition at Bullicame 3 spring (Viterbo, Italy): A multidisciplinary approach. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2011, 75, 4441–4455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dupraz, C.; Reid, R.P.; Braissant, O.; Decho, A.W.; Norman, R.S.; Visscher, P.T. Processes of carbonate precipitation in modern microbial mats. Earth Sci. Rev. 2009, 96, 141–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, D.D.; Zhang, Y.; Zhu, A.; Cheng, X. Physical Mechanisms of River Waterfall Tufa (Travertine) Formation. J. Sediment. Res. 2001, 71, 205–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winsborough, B.M. Diatoms and Benthic Microbial Carbonates; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2000; pp. 76–83. [Google Scholar]
- Sun, S.; Dong, F.; Ehrlich, H.; Zhao, X.; Liu, M.; Dai, Q.; Li, Q.; An, D.; Dong, H. Metabolic influence of psychrophilic diatoms on travertines at the Huanglong Natural Scenic District of China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 13084–13096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gradzinski, M. Factors controlling growth of modern tufa: Results of a field experiment. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 2010, 336, 143–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Merz-Preiß, M.; Riding, R. Cyanobacterial tufa calcification in two freshwater streams: Ambient environment, chemical thresholds and biological processes. Sediment. Geol. 1999, 126, 103–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drysdale, R.N.; Taylor, M.P.; Ihlenfeld, C. Factors controlling the chemical evolution of travertine-depositing rivers of the Barkly karst, northern Australia. Hydrol. Process. 2002, 16, 2941–2962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meldrum, F.C.; Hyde, S.T. Morphological influence of magnesium and organic additives on the precipitation of calcite. J. Cryst. Growth 2001, 231, 544–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lebron, I.; Suarez, D.L. Calcite nucleation and precipitation kinetics as affected by dissolved organic matter at 25 °C and pH > 7.5. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1996, 60, 2765–2776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.P.; Singer, P.C. Inhibition of calcite crystal growth by polyphosphates. Water Res. 2005, 39, 4835–4843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, Y.H.; Tang, Y.; Zhang, C.S.; Wang, J.Y.; Li, B. Contamination assessment of heavy metals in road dusts and soils of the Jiuzhaigou National Scenic Area in Sichuan, China. J. Mt. Sci. 2010, 28, 288–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gu, Y.; Du, J.; Ya, T.; Qiao, X.; Bossard, C.; Deng, G.P.; Wahnschafft, R.; Blanc, D.L. Challenges for sustainable tourism at the Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage site in western China. Nat. Resour. Forum 2013, 37, 103–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Florsheim, J.L.; Ustin, S.L.; Tang, Y.; Di, B.; Huang, C.; Qiao, X.; Peng, H.; Zhang, M.; Cai, Y. Basin-scale and travertine dam-scale controls on fluvial travertine, Jiuzhaigou, southwestern China. Geomorphology 2013, 180–181, 267–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Hu, X.; Tang, Y.; Huang, C.; Xiao, W. Changes in lacustrine environment due to anthropogenic activities over 240 years in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, southwest China. Quat. Int. 2014, 349, 367–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, X.Y.; Huang, C.M.; Tang, Y.; Gong-Bo, S.L.; Hu, X.X.; Wang, Z.W. Rare earth elements: A potential proxy for identifying the lacustrine sediment source and soil erosion intensity in karst areas. J. Soils Sediments 2014, 14, 1693–1702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwartz, M.W.; Dolanc, C.R.; Gao, H.; Strauss, S.Y.; Schwartz, A.C.; Williams, J.N.; Tang, Y. Forest structure, stand composition, and climate-growth response in montane forests of Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e71559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, W.; Ge, X.; Liu, C. Hiking trails and tourism impact assessment in protected area: Jiuzhaigou Biosphere Reserve, China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2005, 108, 279–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Qiao, X.; Tang, Y.; Hu, J.; Zhang, S.; Li, J.; Kota, S.H.; Wu, L.; Gao, H.; Zhang, H.; Ying, Q. Modeling dry and wet deposition of sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium ions in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China using a source-oriented CMAQ model: Part I. Base case model results. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 532, 831–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tang, Y.; Gao, W.; Wang, X.; Ding, S.; An, T.; Xiao, W.; Wong, M.H.; Zhang, C. Variation of arsenic concentration on surfaces of in-service CCA-treated wood planks in a park and its influencing field factors. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015, 187, 4214–4225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gao, L.; Tang, Y.; Bossard, C.; Wang, Y.; Han, Z. Diurnal variation in relative photosynthetic performance of marestail (Hippuris vulgaris Linn.) Across a water temperature gradient using PAM fluorometry in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China. J. Mt. Sci. 2011, 8, 794–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.L.; Wang, H.J.; Liu, Z.H.; An, D.J.; Dreybrodt, W. Spatial-temporal variations of travertine deposition rates and their controlling factors in Huanglong Ravine, China—A world’s heritage site. Appl. Geochem. 2012, 27, 211–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stumm, W.; Morgan, J.J. Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1996; Volume 179. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Z.; Pentecost, A. New and noteworthy bryophytes from the travertines of Guizhou and Sichuan, S. W. China. J. Bryol. 2000, 22, 66–68. [Google Scholar]
- Ouyang, L.; Pan, Y.; Huang, C.; Tang, Y.; Du, J.; Xiao, W. Water quality assessment of benthic diatom communities for water quality in the subalpine karstic lakes of Jiuzhaigou, a world heritage site in China. J. Mt. Sci. 2016, 13, 1632–1644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Z.; Svensson, U.; Dreybrodt, W.; Yuan, D.; Buhmann, D. Hydrodynamic control of inorganic calcite precipitation in Huanglong Ravine, China: Field measurements and theoretical prediction of deposition rates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1995, 59, 3087–3097. [Google Scholar]
- Chafetz, H.; Rush, P.F.; Utech, N.M. Microenvironmental controls on mineralogy and habit of CaCO3 precipitates: An example from an active travertine system. Sedimentology 2006, 38, 107–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forbes, M.; Vogwill, R.; Onton, K. A characterisation of the coastal tufa deposits of south–west Western Australia. Sediment. Geol. 2010, 232, 52–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pentecost, A. The tufa deposits of the Malham district, north Yorkshire. Field Stud. 1981, 5, 365–387. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, Z.; Zhang, M.; Li, Q.; You, S. Hydrochemical and isotope characteristics of spring water and travertine in the Baishuitai area (SW China) and their meaning for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Environ. Geol. 2003, 44, 698–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pentecost, A.; Viles, H. A Review and Reassessment of Travertine Classification. Geogr. Phys. Quat. 1994, 48, 305–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan, L.; Cao, W.; Hu, F.; Jin, X.; Chen, J.; Gong, B. Eco-Hydrogeology; Geology Press: Beijing, China, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Adesuyi, A.; Nnodu, V.; Njoku, K.; Anuoluwapo, J. Nitrate and Phosphate Pollution in Surface Water of Nwaja Creek, Port Harcourt, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Int. J. Geol. Agric. Environ. Sci. 2015, 3, 13–20. [Google Scholar]
- Qiao, X.; Du, J.; Lugli, S.; Ren, J.; Xiao, W.; Chen, P.; Tang, Y. Are climate warming and enhanced atmospheric deposition of sulfur and nitrogen threatening tufa landscapes in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China? Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 562, 724–731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kazmierczak, K. The role of alkalinity in the evolution of ocean chemistry, organization of living systems, and biocalcification processes. Prep. Biochem. 1994, 7, 345–355. [Google Scholar]
- Yoshimura, K.; Liu, Z.; Cao, J.; Yuan, D.; Inokura, Y.; Noto, M. Deep source CO2 in natural waters and its role in extensive tufa deposition in the Huanglong Ravines, Sichuan, China. Geol. Geochem. 2005, 205, 141–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fouke, B.W.; Farmer, J.D.; Des Marais, D.J.; Pratt, L.; Sturchio, N.C.; Burns, P.C.; Discipulo, M.K. Depositional facies and aqueous-solid geochemistry of travertine-depositing hot springs (Angel Terrace, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.). J. Sediment. Res. 2000, 70, 565–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Wet, C.B.; Davis, K. Preservation potential of microorganism morphologies in tufas, sinters, and travertines through geologic time. Palaeobiodivers. Palaeoenviron. 2010, 90, 139–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arenas, C.; Cabrera, L.; Ramos, E. Sedimentology of tufa facies and continental microbialites from the Palaeogene of Mallorca Island (Spain). Sediment. Geol. 2007, 197, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arenas, C.; Pomar, L. Microbial deposits in upper Miocene carbonates, Mallorca, Spain. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. 2010, 297, 465–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angeli, N.; Cantonati, M.; Spitale, D.; Lange-Bertalot, H. A comparison between diatom assemblages in two groups of carbonate, low-altitude springs with different levels of anthropogenic disturbances. J. Czech Phycol. Soc. 2010, 10, 115–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potapova, M.; Charles, D.F. Diatom metrics for monitoring eutrophication in rivers of the United States. Ecol. Indic. 2007, 7, 48–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, P.; Shen, H.; Xie, P. Can hydrodynamics change phosphorus strategies of diatoms?—Nutrient levels and diatom blooms in lotic and lentic ecosystems. Microb. Ecol. 2012, 63, 369–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Urgenson, L.; Schmidt, A.H.; Combs, J.; Harrell, S.; Hinckley, T.; Yang, Q.; Ma, Z.; Yongxian, L.; Hongliang, L.; MacIver, A. Traditional Livelihoods, Conservation and Meadow Ecology in Jiuzhaigou National Park, Sichuan, China. Hum. Ecol. 2014, 42, 481–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sites | Location | Subenvironment | Altitude (m) | Water Depth (cm) | Water Velocity (cm·s−1) | Tufa Characteristics |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SABL | Over Arrow Bamboo waterfalls, near walkway, close to road. | Areas of very low slope, stable groundwater recharge and paludification; the annual variation of water level was small. | 2618 | 10–50 | 20–75 | Loose sediment formed of algae and amorphous detritus, coated diatoms. |
SPL | 100 m downstream from Panda Waterfall. | Turbulent water flow, steep slope, surface water recharge; water flow showed dramatic reduction due to seasonal decline in rainfall (from November 2013 to April 2014). | 2507 | 0–50 | 90–225 | Spongy tufa, diatoms involvement in deposits, well-formed rhombohedra of calcite crystals. |
SPS1 | Under walkway, near entrance. | Areas of gentle slope, plentiful algae; strong water flow in the wet season a; weak flow in the dry season b. | 2452 | 0–20 | 50–90 | Diatoms were the main part of loose sediment, finer spherulitic calcites. |
SPS2 | In a depression of the central shoal. | Areas of shoal, including steeper slope, turbulent flow; the annual change of water flow was obvious. | 2433 | 0–30 | 30–100 | Diatoms participating in porous carbonate deposits, sheet-like calcite crystals. |
SPS3 | Central shoal | Gentle slope with bryophytes growth; the annual variation of water flow was obvious. | 2438 | 0–20 | 50–90 | Large amounts of diatoms embedded in loose deposits, clumps of calcite crystals. |
SSZL | Opposite Shuzheng Mill, intersection of walkways. | Areas with gentle to nil slope stretching along the river bed; algae-rich, constant water flow. | 2250 | ~100 | 0–50 | Diatoms covered the loose deposits; scarce or absent carbonate deposits, poor calcites. |
Site * | SABL | SPL | SPS1 | SPS2 | SPS3 | SSZL | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water temp (°C) | 7.69 (0.94) | 8.35 (0.88) | 7.69 (0.55) | 8.44 (0.57) | 8.90 (0.43) | 9.64 (0.83) | 0.851 | 0.520 |
pH | 8.16 (0.04) b | 8.34 (0.14) a | 8.23 (0.03) ab | 8.35 (0.02) a | 8.28 (0.04) ab | 8.28 (0.02) ab | 4.518 | 0.002 |
Ca2+ (mg·L−1) | 60.16 (3.21) a | 55.14 (1.57) ab | 56.78 (2.01) ab | 55.60 (1.78) ab | 54.85 (2.54) ab | 49.84 (0.54) b | 2.423 | 0.047 |
Mg2+ (mg·L−1) | 13.02 (0.42) ab | 12.30 (0.25) b | 13.63 (0.25) a | 13.53 (0.29) a | 13.54 (0.26) a | 13.70 (0.21) a | 3.049 | 0.017 |
HCO3− (mg·L−1) | 248.77 (9.69) a | 202.51 (3.70) c | 224.95 (3.78) b | 223.53 (3.87) b | 220.06 (2.96) b | 189.58 (3.26) c | 15.6 | 0.001 |
SO42− (mg·L−1) | 21.57 (1.30) | 20.69 (1.06) | 22.37 (0.63) | 21.77 (0.86) | 21.87 (0.82) | 22.73 (0.79) | 0.526 | 0.756 |
NO3− (mg·L−1) | 0.90 (0.06) ab | 0.73 (0.13) b | 1.09 (0.04) a | 1.08 (0.05) a | 1.08 (0.04) a | 1.11 (0.06) a | 5.024 | 0.001 |
(DP) (mg·L−1) | 0.009 (0.002) a | 0.003 (0.001) b | 0.004 (0.001) b | 0.003 (0.001) b | 0.004 (0.001) b | 0.005 (0.001) ab | 2.672 | 0.046 |
© 2017 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Liu, L. Factors Affecting Tufa Degradation in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Water 2017, 9, 702. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090702
Liu L. Factors Affecting Tufa Degradation in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. Water. 2017; 9(9):702. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090702
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Lixia. 2017. "Factors Affecting Tufa Degradation in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China" Water 9, no. 9: 702. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090702