Consumption of Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages Compared to Water Is Associated with Reduced Intake of Carbohydrates and Sugar, with No Adverse Relationships to Glycemic Responses: Results from the 2001–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Estimation of Intake
2.3. Demographics
2.4. Glycemic Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographics and Characteristics of LCSB and Water Consumers
3.2. Nutrient Intakes
3.3. Prediabetes Criteria
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food Code | Description | Kcal/8oz | Consumption Occasions | Number of Consumers |
---|---|---|---|---|
92410320 | Soft drink, cola, diet | 4.5 | 6199 | 3144 |
92410350 | Soft drink, cola, decaffeinated, diet | 2.5 | 2306 | 1396 |
92410520 | Soft drink, fruit flavored, diet, caffeine free | 0.0 | 1206 | 803 |
92552010 | Fruit flavored drink, powdered, reconstituted, diet | 3.5 | 796 | 461 |
92301080 | Tea, NS as to type, presweetened with low calorie sweetener | 6.1 | 595 | 398 |
92410560 | Soft drink, fruit flavored, caffeine, diet | 0.0 | 578 | 315 |
92410370 | Soft drink, pepper type, diet | 4.5 | 544 | 339 |
92302300 | Tea, leaf, presweetened with low calorie sweetener | 6.0 | 311 | 202 |
92305090 | Tea, iced, instant, black, pre-sweetened with low calorie sweetener | 4.7 | 290 | 185 |
92410720 | Soft drink, root beer, diet | 0.0 | 214 | 166 |
94100200 | Water, bottled, sweetened with low calorie sweetener | 2.4 | 175 | 125 |
92550620 | Fruit flavored drink, diet | 7.1 | 167 | 125 |
92410620 | Soft drink, ginger ale, diet | 0.0 | 163 | 112 |
92410400 | Soft drink, pepper type, decaffeinated, diet | 2.5 | 158 | 120 |
92410250 | Carbonated water, sweetened with low-calorie or no-calorie sweetener | 0.0 | 134 | 95 |
92302700 | Tea, leaf, decaffeinated, presweetened with low calorie sweetener | 6.0 | 123 | 72 |
92305110 | Tea, iced, instant, black, decaffeinated, pre-sweetened with low calorie sweetener | 5.6 | 118 | 83 |
92550040 | Fruit juice drink, diet | 5.3 | 103 | 82 |
92301180 | Tea, NS as to type, decaffeinated, presweetened with low calorie sweetener | 6.0 | 65 | 50 |
92741000 | Fruit-flavored drink, non-carbonated, made from low calorie powdered mix | 2.6 | 64 | 47 |
92411610 | Soft drink, cola, fruit or vanilla flavored, diet | 4.6 | 61 | 48 |
92541040 | Lemonade-flavored drink, made from powdered mix, low calorie | 4.9 | 55 | 32 |
92306030 | Tea, herbal, presweetened with low calorie sweetener | 6.0 | 49 | 41 |
92520910 | Lemonade, low calorie | 4.8 | 41 | 37 |
92410420 | Soft drink, cream soda, diet | 0.0 | 20 | 16 |
92400100 | Soft drink, NFS, diet | 3.7 | 10 | 8 |
92565200 | Powerade Zero sports drink, low calorie | 0.0 | 3 | 2 |
95312500 | Mountain Dew AMP Energy Drink, sugar-free | 4.6 | 3 | 3 |
92650210 | Mountain Dew AMP Energy Drink, sugar-free | 4.7 | 2 | 2 |
92650805 | Vault Zero Energy drink | 2.5 | 2 | 1 |
92410820 | Soft drink, chocolate flavored, diet | 3.9 | 1 | 1 |
94220200 | Glaceau Water, low calorie | 2.4 | 1 | 1 |
95312800 | Vault Zero Energy Drink | 2.0 | 1 | 1 |
No- and Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages | Water | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | <1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | 2+ Servings | <1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | 2+ Serving | |
Gender | |||||||
% Female | 50.7 ± 0.3 | 49.8 ± 0.4 | 54.7 ± 1.3 | 54.6 ± 1.6 | 54.0 ± 1.3 | 45.2 ± 1.4 | 51.1 ± 0.4 |
Ethnicity | |||||||
% Mexican American | 7.9 ± 0.6 | 8.7 ± 0.7 | 5.7 ± 0.8 | 3.2 ± 0.6 | 7.8 ± 0.8 | 8.8 ± 0.9 | 7.7 ± 0.6 |
% Non-Hispanic black | 10.9 ± 0.7 | 12.5 ± 0.8 | 6.3 ± 0.7 | 2.3 ± 0.3 | 11.5 ± 1.1 | 13.7 ± 1.1 | 10.3 ± 0.7 |
% Non-Hispanic white | 71.3 ± 1.3 | 67.8 ± 1.4 | 81.3 ± 1.3 | 89.0 ± 1.1 | 72.7 ± 1.8 | 67.7 ± 1.9 | 71.6 ± 1.3 |
Physical Activity | |||||||
% Sedentary | 25.9 ± 0.6 | 27.2 ± 0.6 | 20.7 ± 1.3 | 21.0 ± 1.3 | 37.6 ± 1.4 | 29.9 ± 1.1 | 23.7 ± 0.6 |
% Moderate | 34.6 ± 0.5 | 34.0 ± 0.5 | 37.3 ± 1.4 | 36.4 ± 1.5 | 34.3 ± 1.3 | 34.6 ± 1.1 | 34.6 ± 0.6 |
% Vigorous | 39.5 ± 0.8 | 38.8 ± 0.8 | 42.1 ± 1.5 | 42.5 ± 1.6 | 28.1 ± 1.3 | 35.6 ± 1.2 | 41.7 ± 0.8 |
Poverty Index Ratio (PIR) | |||||||
% PIR ≤ 1.3 | 21.5 ± 0.7 | 24.2 ± 0.8 | 12.2 ± 0.9 | 9.4 ± 0.8 | 28.9 ± 1.3 | 27.1 ± 1.4 | 19.5 ± 0.7 |
% 1.3 < PIR < 1.85 | 10.1 ± 0.3 | 10.9 ± 0.3 | 7.7 ± 0.9 | 6.0 ± 0.7 | 11.1 ± 0.8 | 10.6 ± 0.7 | 9.9 ± 0.3 |
% PIR > 1.85 | 68.5 ± 0.8 | 65.0 ± 0.9 | 80.1 ± 1.3 | 84.7 ± 1.1 | 60.0 ± 1.5 | 62.4 ± 1.6 | 70.6 ± 0.8 |
Other | |||||||
BMI (kg/m2) | 28.0 ± 0.1 | 27.6 ± 0.1 | 29.3 ± 0.2 | 30.1 ± 0.2 | 27.9 ± 0.2 | 28.0 ± 0.2 | 28.1 ± 0.1 |
Age (years) | 45.2 ± 0.3 | 44.8 ± 0.3 | 47.2 ± 0.4 | 46.0 ± 0.4 | 45.5 ± 0.4 | 45.3 ± 0.5 | 45.1 ± 0.3 |
n | 25,815 | 22,027 | 2116 | 1672 | 2949 | 3444 | 19,422 |
Weighted n | 191,034,976 | 153,129,025 | 19,016,197 | 18,889,754 | 20,941,619 | 23,173,180 | 146,920,177 |
Variables | No- and Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages | Water | LCSB vs. Water Trend | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | <1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | Linear Trend | |
Energy (kcal) | 2134 ± 10 | 2038 ± 23 | 2080 ± 23 | 0.037 | 2170 ± 24 | 2136 ± 23 | 2114 ± 11 | 0.473 | NS |
Carbohydrate (g) | 272 ± 1 | 257 ± 2 | 244 ± 2 | <0.001 | 276 ± 2 | 273 ± 2 | 267 ± 1 | <0.001 | * |
Total sugar (g) | 125 ± 1 | 106 ± 1 | 92 ± 2 | <0.001 | 137 ± 2 | 129 ± 2 | 118 ± 1 | <0.001 | * |
Added sugar (tsp eq) | 19.7 ± 0.2 | 15.8 ± 0.4 | 13.7 ± 0.5 | <0.001 | 23.8 ± 0.5 | 21.4 ± 0.4 | 17.9 ± 0.2 | <0.001 | * |
Dietary fiber (g) | 16.5 ± 0.2 | 16.8 ± 0.3 | 16.2 ± 0.3 | 0.334 | 14.4 ± 0.2 | 15.1 ± 0.2 | 17.1 ± 0.1 | <0.001 | * |
Protein (g) | 82.3 ± 0.4 | 86.0 ± 0.8 | 87.9 ± 1.0 | <0.001 | 79.7 ± 0.7 | 80.3 ± 0.8 | 87.9 ± 1.0 | <0.001 | * |
Total fat (g) | 78.1 ± 0.3 | 82.9 ± 0.8 | 87.3 ± 0.9 | <0.001 | 77.1 ± 0.7 | 78.0 ± 0.6 | 79.5 ± 0.3 | <0.001 | * |
Total MFA (g) | 28.8 ± 0.1 | 30.6 ± 0.3 | 32.3 ± 0.4 | <0.001 | 28.5 ± 0.3 | 28.8 ± 0.2 | 29.3 ± 0.1 | 0.001 | * |
Total PUFA (g) | 17.3 ± 0.1 | 18.6 ± 0.3 | 19.9 ± 0.3 | <0.001 | 16.5 ± 0.3 | 17.4 ± 0.3 | 17.7 ± 0.1 | 0.001 | * |
Total SFA (g) | 25.1 ± 0.1 | 26.4 ± 0.3 | 27.5 ± 0.3 | <0.001 | 25.2 ± 0.3 | 25.1 ± 0.2 | 25.4 ± 0.1 | 0.206 | * |
Variables | No- and Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages | Water | LCSB vs. Water Trend | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | <1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | Linear Trend | |
Glucose (mmol/L) | 5.57 ± 0.02 | 5.56 ± 0.03 | 5.51 ± 0.03 | 0.046 | 5.57 ± 0.03 | 5.56 ± 0.02 | 5.56 ± 0.02 | 0.145 | NS |
Insulin (pmol/L) | 73.2 ± 1.0 | 70.5 ± 2.5 | 65.7 ± 2.0 | <0.001 | 75.1 ± 2.0 | 73.7 ± 1.7 | 72.1 ± 1.1 | 0.009 | NS |
HbA1c (%) | 5.50 ± 0.01 | 5.49 ± 0.01 | 5.46 ± 0.01 | 0.005 | 5.49 ± 0.01 | 5.50 ± 0.01 | 5.50 ± 0.01 | 0.298 | NS |
HOMA-IR | 3.13 ± 0.05 | 3.04 ± 0.13 | 2.79 ± 0.09 | <0.001 | 3.20 ± 0.10 | 3.11 ± 0.08 | 3.09 ± 0.05 | 0.061 | NS |
Variables | No- and Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages | Water | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | <1 Serving | 1–2 Servings | >2 Servings | Linear Trend | |
Glucose ≥ 5.55 mmol/L | 1.00 | 1.13 (0.93, 1.37) | 0.95 (0.79, 1.14) | 0.487 | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.91, 1.39) | 1.01 (0.84, 1.21) | 0.498 |
Insulin ≥ 90 pmol/L | 1.00 | 0.74 * (0.59, 0.94) | 0.63 * (0.49, 0.80) | <0.001 | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.61, 1.04) | 0.79 (0.63, 1.01) | 0.001 |
HbA1c ≥ 5.7% | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 0.79 * (0.64, 0.98) | 0.002 | 1.00 | 1.20 (0.98, 1.45) | 1.10 (0.95, 1.28) | 0.431 |
HOMA-IR ≥ 4.0 | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.69, 1.10) | 0.68 * (0.53, 0.87) | 0.009 | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.65, 1.08) | 0.80 (0.64, 1.00) | <0.001 |
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Leahy, M.; Ratliff, J.C.; Riedt, C.S.; Fulgoni, V.L., III. Consumption of Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages Compared to Water Is Associated with Reduced Intake of Carbohydrates and Sugar, with No Adverse Relationships to Glycemic Responses: Results from the 2001–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Nutrients 2017, 9, 928. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090928
Leahy M, Ratliff JC, Riedt CS, Fulgoni VL III. Consumption of Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages Compared to Water Is Associated with Reduced Intake of Carbohydrates and Sugar, with No Adverse Relationships to Glycemic Responses: Results from the 2001–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Nutrients. 2017; 9(9):928. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090928
Chicago/Turabian StyleLeahy, Marge, Joseph C. Ratliff, Claudia S. Riedt, and Victor L. Fulgoni, III. 2017. "Consumption of Low-Calorie Sweetened Beverages Compared to Water Is Associated with Reduced Intake of Carbohydrates and Sugar, with No Adverse Relationships to Glycemic Responses: Results from the 2001–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys" Nutrients 9, no. 9: 928. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090928