Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Approaches to Self-Healing
2.1. Intrinsic Self-Healing
2.1.1. Autogenous Healing
2.1.2. Improved Autogenous Healing
Restriction of the Crack Width
Water Supply
Hydration and Crystallization
2.1.3. Healing in Polymer Modified Concrete
2.2. Capsule Based Self-Healing
2.2.1. Reaction due to Moisture, Air or Heat
2.2.2. Reaction with the Cementitious Matrix
2.2.3. Reaction with Second Component Present in Matrix
2.2.4. Reaction with Second Component Provided by Additional Capsules
2.3. Vascular Based Self-Healing
2.3.1. One Channel Vascular System
2.3.2. Multiple Channel Vascular System
3. Efficiency of Different Types of Healing Agents
3.1. Rheological Properties
Agent | Number of components | Viscosity [mPas] | Way of curing | Curing time | Expansion | Strength [MPa] | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | >2 | Yes | No | ||||||
CA | √ | – | <10 | moist | seconds | – | √ | 20 | [32,47,95,96] |
Epoxy | √ | – | – | moist, air, heat | 60 °C, <100 min | – | √ | – | [130] |
√ | – | 250–500 | moist, air | – | – | √ | 22 | [97] | |
√ | – | – | moist, air | – | – | √ | 25 | [43] | |
– | √ | – | contact component | – | – | √ | – | [111] | |
– | √ | – | contact component | ±1 h | – | √ | – | [1] | |
– | √ | 200 | contact component | – | – | √ | 17.6 | [112] | |
– | √ | 150 | contact component | 30 min | – | √ | 5.1 | [95] | |
– | √ | 80 | contact component | 30 min | – | √ | 4.2 | [95] | |
– | √ | 360 | contact component | 40 min | – | √ | 45 | [95] | |
MMA | √ | – | – | heat | – | – | √ | – | [92] |
– | √ | ±1 | contact component | 30 min | – | √ | 50-75 | [134] | |
– | √ | ±1 | contact component | – | – | √ | – | [115] | |
– | √ | 34 | contact component | 1 h | – | √ | 50 | [117] | |
Silicone | √ | – | – | air | – | – | √ | – | [122] |
Foam | √ | – | – | – | – | √ | – | [122] | |
PU | √ | – | 7200 | moist | 40–180 min | √ | – | [95] | |
– | √ | 600 | contact component | 50–300 s | √ | – | [95,116] | ||
Polyacrylate | – | √ | 7 | contact component | 40 s | – | √ | – | [95] |
Tung oil | √ | – | – | air | – | – | √ | – | [1] |
Alkali silica solution | √ | – | – | air | – | – | √ | – | [111] |
Ca(OH)2 solution | √ | – | – | CO2 in air | – | – | √ | – | [1] |
Na2SiO3 solution | √ | – | – | Ca(OH)2 matrix | – | – | √ | – | [107,109] |
Na2FPO3 solution | √ | – | – | hydration and carbonation products | 28 days | – | √ | – | [135] |
Ca(NO2)2 solution | √ | – | – | matrix | – | – | √ | – | [136] |
PU + bacterial solution | – | √ | 600 | contact component | – | √ | – | – | [118] |
Bacterial solution | √ | – | – | water and O2 | 100 days | – | √ | – | [137] |
– | √ | – | water | – | – | √ | – | [110] |
3.2. Curing Conditions and Curing Time
3.3. Sealing Ability
3.4. Mechanical Properties
3.5. Stability over Time
4. Suitable Encapsulation Techniques
4.1. Survival of Mix Process and Influence on Workability
Shell material | Content | Øi | Øo | Wall thickness | Length | Mixed in | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[µm] | [µm] | [µm] | [mm] | ||||||
Capsule based approach | Spherical | expanded clay | Na2FPO3 | x | 4000 | x | x | √ | [135] |
expanded clay | bacteria | x | 1000–4000 | x | x | √ | [105] | ||
expanded clay | CaC6H10O6 | x | 1000–4000 | x | x | √ | [105] | ||
diatomaceous earth | bacteria | x | – | x | x | √ | [110] | ||
gelatin | acrylic resin | – | 125-297 | – | x | – | [111] | ||
gelatin | epoxy | – | 50 | – | x | √ | [1] | ||
gelatin | tung oil | – | 50 | – | x | √ | [1] | ||
gelatin | Ca(OH)2 | – | 50 | – | x | √ | [1] | ||
wax | retarder agent | – | 120 | – | x | √ | [142] | ||
paraffin | water | – | 900 | – | x | – | [58] | ||
cement + paraffin | SAP | – | – | – | x | – | [57] | ||
UF | epoxy | – | 120 | 4 | x | √ | [112] | ||
UFF | epoxy | – | 20–70 | – | x | – | [111] | ||
PU | Na2SiO3 | – | 40–800 | – | x | √ | [109] | ||
silica gel | MMA | – | 4.15 | – | x | √ | [115] | ||
silica gel | TEB | – | 4.15 | – | x | √ | [115] | ||
silica | epoxy | – | – | – | x | √ | [113] | ||
silica | Na2SiO3 | – | 5000 | – | x | ∕ | [107] | ||
Cylindrical | glass | CA | 800 | 1000 | 100 | 100 | ∕ | [32] | |
glass | CA | 800 | – | – | 75 | ∕ | [47] | ||
glass | CA | 1500 | – | – | 75 | ∕ | [47] | ||
glass | CA | 3000 | – | – | 100 | ∕ | [47] | ||
glass | epoxy | 3000 | 5000 | – | 250 | ∕ | [97] | ||
glass | epoxy | 4000 | 6000 | – | 250 | ∕ | [97] | ||
glass | epoxy | 4000 | 7000 | – | – | – | [97] | ||
glass | CA | 3200 | 4000 | 400 | 200 | ∕ | [96] | ||
glass | CA | – | 100 | – | 63.5 | √ | [93] | ||
glass | CA | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | [95] | ||
glass | epoxy | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | [95] | ||
glass | polyacrylate | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | [95] | ||
glass | PU | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | [116] | ||
glass | bacteria | 2000–3000 | 2200–3350 | 100 | 20–80 | ∕ | [118] | ||
ceramics | PU | 2500–3500 | 3000–4000 | 250 | 15–50 | ∕ | [116] | ||
perspex | epoxy | – | – | – | – | ∕ | [97] | ||
plant fiber | – | – | 40–188 | – | – | – | [102] | ||
PP with wax | MMA | – | – | – | – | ∕ | [5] | ||
Vascular based approach | Tubular | glass | alkali silica | 800 | 2000 | 600 | x | ∕ | [111] |
glass | epoxy | 800 | 2000 | 600 | x | ∕ | [111] | ||
glass | CA | 3000 | 4000 | 500 | x | ∕ | [47] | ||
glass | epoxy | 4800 | 6000 | 600 | x | ∕ | [42] | ||
glass | CA | 3200 | 4000 | 400 | x | ∕ | [96] | ||
glass | foam | 1500 | – | – | x | ∕ | [122] | ||
glass | epoxy | 1500 | – | – | X | / | [122] | ||
glass | silicon | 1500 | – | – | X | / | [122] | ||
glass | CA | 1500 | – | – | X | / | [122] | ||
spiral twisted wire with EVA | epoxy | 2000 | 3400 | 700 | x | ∕ | [130] | ||
porous concrete | epoxy | – | 25000–35000 | – | x | ∕ | [127] |
4.2. Influence on Mechanical Properties
4.3. Compatibility with Matrix and Healing Agent
4.4. Probability of Crack Going through
4.5. Release Efficiency
4.6. Healable Crack Volume
5. Mechanisms to Trigger the Autonomous Healing Action
Trigger | Result | |
---|---|---|
water | Autogenous healing | further hydration | |
water + CO2 | Autogenous healing | CaCO3 precipitation | |
water | Expansion, swelling and precipitation of additives | |
water | Swelling of SAP and autogenous healing [49,52,147] | |
high RH | Swelling of SAP and autogenous healing [56] | |
chloride solution | Coating around porous PP tube degrades and Ca(NO2)2 leaches through pores | |
water + O2 | Activation of spores and bacterial CaCO3 precipitation [103] | |
water | Bacterial CaCO3 precipitation [110] | |
CO2 | Degradation of coating around expanded clay particles and release of Na2PFO3 | |
External | ||
90 °C (+water) | Crack closure by SMA (PET) (followed by autogenous healing) | |
100 °C | Melting of wax coating around porous PP capsules and release of MMA | |
150 °C | Melting of EVA particles | |
Internal | Melting of paraffin coating and release of hydration retarder agent | |
48 °C | Melting of EVA film around Spiral wire and release of epoxy | |
93 °C | ||
(+water) | Crack closure by SMA (followed by autogenous healing) | |
Capsule breakage and release of healing agent | ||
Delamination of plant fibers and release of healing agent | ||
Actuation of pump and injection of healing agent into porous concrete layer |
5.1. Ingress of Liquids and Gasses
5.2. Exertion of Heat
5.3. Crack Formation
6. Regained Properties and Assessment of Healing Performance
6.1. Increased Durability
Technique | Possibilities | References | |
---|---|---|---|
visualization and determination | Optical microscopy + image analysis | Visualization crystal deposition + determination healing rate | [38,39,70,78,103,105,107,110,149] |
Scanning electron microscopy | Visualization crystal deposition | [1,25,38,78,107,110,137] | |
Environmental scanning electron microscopy | Visualization breakage of partially embedded capsule | [32] | |
Thin section analysis | Visualization crystal deposition inside crack | [31,127,135] | |
X-ray radiography | Visualization release encapsulated agent from embedded capsule | [111] | |
X-ray tomography | Visualization release encapsulated agent from embedded capsule in 3D | [116] | |
Digital image correlation | Visualization of crack closure upon heat treatment of SMA | [48] | |
X-ray diffraction analysis | Determination of crystalline materials | [63,78] | |
Ramann spectroscopy | Determination chemical composition | [38] | |
Infrared analysis | Determination of precipitated products | [90,105] | |
regain tightness | Water permeability | low pressure | Water flow through (healed) crack | [1,14,15,38,39,40,64,70,79,129] |
Water permeability | high pressure | Water flow through (healed) crack | [16,22,103,116,118] | |
Air permeability | Air flow through (healed) crack | [64,115] | |
Capillary water uptake | Capillary water uptake by (healed) crack | [35,135] | |
Neutron radiography | Visualize capillary water uptake by (healed) crack | [150,151] | |
Corrosion test | Resistance against corrosion | [109,110,136] | |
Frost salt scaling | Resistance against frost salt scaling | [152] | |
Chloride diffusion | Resistance against chloride ingress | [50,60] | |
Osmotic pressure | Resistance against ion ingress | [153] | |
Ultrasonic transmission measurements | Continuity of material | [63] | |
regain mechanical properties | Compression test | [115,154] | |
Tensile test | Regain in strength, stiffness and/or energy obtained when reloading healed specimen | [36,38,39,155] | |
3-point bending test | [5,23,28,43,47,97,107,109,112,114,122] | ||
4-point bending test | Formation of new cracks versus reopening of old cracks | [96,100,116,147,156] | |
Horizontal deformation column/frame | [100,157] | ||
Impact loading slab | [100] | ||
Acoustic emission analysis | Regain in energy/Notice capsule breakage | [13,158,159] | |
Resonance frequency analysis | Regain in stiffness | [11,13,16,17,36,85,153] |
6.2. Regain in Mechanical Properties
7. Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References and Notes
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Van Tittelboom, K.; De Belie, N. Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials—A Review. Materials 2013, 6, 2182-2217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6062182
Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N. Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials—A Review. Materials. 2013; 6(6):2182-2217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6062182
Chicago/Turabian StyleVan Tittelboom, Kim, and Nele De Belie. 2013. "Self-Healing in Cementitious Materials—A Review" Materials 6, no. 6: 2182-2217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma6062182