The Impact of Social Disparities on Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water Supply in Ugu District Municipality of Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Study Site and Population
2.2. Scientific Ethics and Informed Consent
2.3. Study Survey on Social Discrimination
2.4. Collection of Drinking Water Samples
2.5. Analysis of Drinking Water Quality
2.5.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Drinking Water Samples
2.5.2. Microbiological Characteristics of Drinking Water Samples
Detection and Enumeration of Culturable Thermotolerant Coliforms and E. coli
Molecular Identification of the Isolates
3. Results
3.1. Social Discrimination of the Ugu District during the Study Period
Disparities in Housing Patterns
3.2. Disparities in Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities in the Target Study Area
3.3. Disparities of Employment Rate and Level of Education in the Target Study Area
3.4. Disparities in Drinking Water Infrastructure and Mode of Access to Municipal Drinking Water
3.5. Water Quality Analysis
3.5.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Water Samples from Rural and Urban Areas of Ugu District
3.5.2. General Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water Supply in the Rural and Urban Area of Ugu Municipality
3.5.3. The Prevalence of Pathogenic E. coli Detected in Drinking Water Samples from Rural and Urban Areas of Ugu District after Sequencing of 16S rRNA Genes
4. Discussion
4.1. Social Disparities in Housing, Education Level, Employment Rate, and Health
4.2. Disparities in Sanitation, Water Supply, and Water Quality
5. Conclusions and Recommendation
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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E. coli Strain | Designation | Sequence (5′ to 3′) | Target Gene | Product Size (bp) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
EPEC | SK1 | CCCGAATTCGGCACAAGCATAAGC | Eae | 881 | [31] |
SK2 | CCCGGATCCGTCTCGCCAGTATTCG | ||||
EHEC | VTcom-u | GAGCGAAATAATTTATATGTG | Stx | 518 | [32] |
VTcom-d | TGATGATGGCAATTCAGTAT | ||||
EIEC | ipaIII | GTTCCTTGACCGCCTTTCCGATACCGTC | ipaH | 619 | [33] |
ipaIV | GCCGGTCAGCCACCCTCTGAGAGTAC | ||||
EAEC | aggRks1 | GTATACACAAAAGAAGGAAGC | aggR | 254 | [34] |
aggRks2 | ACAGAATCGTCAGCATCAGC |
Socio-Demographic Characteristics | Rural Areas | Urban Areas | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency (n = 220) | Percentage (%) | Frequency (n = 108) | Percentage (%) | ||
Water supply | Inside houses | 0 | 0 | 108 | 100 |
Within the yard (1 m–2.5 m) | 20 | 9.1 | 0 | 0 | |
Communal tap (≥ 200 m away) | 200 | 90.9 | 0 | 0 | |
No access | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Sanitation facilities | Flush toilets | 0 | 0 | 108 | 100 |
Pit latrines | 216 | 98.2 | 0 | 0 | |
Open defecation | 4 | 1.8 | 0 | 0 | |
Diarrhoeal episodes | Yes | 75 | 34.1 | 0 | 0 |
No | 145 | 65.9 | 108 | 0 |
Socio-Demographic Characteristics | Rural Areas | Urban Areas | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency (n = 1533) | Percentage (%) | Frequency (n = 226) | Percentage (%) | ||
Employment rate | Unemployed | 890 | 58.1 | 0 | 0 |
Domestic | 177 | 11.5 | 0 | 0 | |
Security job | 209 | 13.6 | 0 | 0 | |
Professional | 189 | 12.3 | 126 | 55.8 | |
Retired/pensioners | 68 | 4.5 | 100 | 44.2 | |
Education level | Primary | 130 | 8.5 | 0 | 0 |
Completed secondary school | 209 | 13.6 | 159 | 70.4 | |
Tertiary education | 278 | 18.1 | 67 | 29.6 | |
Drop-out | 916 | 59.8 | 0 | 0 |
Rural Area | ||||||||||||
Parameter | Point of Treatment | Reservoir | Standpipe | Container-Stored Water | ||||||||
BY | BM | Gam | BY | BM | Gam | BY | BM | Gam | BY | BM | Gam | |
Turbidity (NTU) | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 3.3 | 2.4 | 2.9 | 4.7 | 3.9 | 2.8 |
Temperature (°C) | 26.4 | 26.4 | 26.4 | 25 | 25.6 | 25.3 | 25.4 | 24.8 | 25 | 23.2 | 22.7 | 22.6 |
pH | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.8 | 6.5 | 7.0 | 7.5 | 6.8 | 7.3 | 7.5 | 6.8 | 7.3 |
Residual chlorine (mg/L) | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.38 | 0.45 | 0.77 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.57 | 0.77 | 0.86 | 0.90 |
Urban Area | ||||||||||||
Parameter | Point of Treatment | Reservoir | Tap Water in Dwellings | |||||||||
ANN | HIB | MG | PS | ANN | HIB | MG | PS | ANN | HIB | MG | PS | |
Turbidity (NTU) | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.5 | 1.9 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.5 |
Temperature (°C) | 26.4 | 26.4 | 26.4 | 26.4 | 24.4 | 24.6 | 24.5 | 24.0 | 23 | 23.2 | 23.4 | 22.7 |
pH | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.8 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 6.8 | 6.6 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 6.9 | 6.6 |
Residual chlorine (mg/L) | 0.14 | 0.36 | 0.1 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.38 | 0.41 | 0.31 | 0.40 | 0.37 | 0.81 |
Rural Areas | ||||||||||||
Point of Treatment | Reservoir | Standpipe | Stored Water | |||||||||
Thermo-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | Thermo-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | Thermo-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | Thermo-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | |
Boboyi | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | 1.079 | 0.954 | 0.903 | 1.653 | 1.544 | 1.255 |
Bomela | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | 0.954 | 0.778 | 0.602 | 1.477 | 1.301 | 1.176 |
Gamalakhe | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | 0.602 | 0.477 | 0.301 | 1.556 | 1.342 | 1.230 |
Urban Areas | ||||||||||||
Point of Treatment | Reservoir | Tap Water in Dwellings | ||||||||||
Thermo-Tolerant Coliform | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | Thermos-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | Thermo-Tolerant Coliforms | Faecal Coliforms | E. coli | ||||
Annelin | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | |||
Hibberdene | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | |||
Margate | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | |||
Port Shepstone | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG | NG |
Organisms Detected | Rural Area (Storage Containers) | Urban Area (In-House Taps) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
By | Bm | Gam | Ps | Mg | Ann | Hib | |
N = 107 | N 90 | N = 90 | |||||
E. coli | 65.4 % (70) | 66.7 % (60) | 63.3 % (57) | 0 % (0) | 0 % (0) | 0 % (0) | 0 % (0) |
Rural Areas | Point of Treatment | Reservoir | Standpipe | Stored Water | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pathogenic E. coli | Pathogenic E. coli | EHEC | EPEC | EIEC | EAEC | EHEC | EPEC | EIEC | EAEC | |
Boboyi | ND | ND | ND | 1 (1.5%) | ND | ND | ND | 2 (3.7%) | ND | ND |
Bomela | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1 (2.7%) | ND | ND |
Gamalakhe | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1 (1.4%) | ND | ND |
Urban Area | ||||||||||
Margate | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Annelin | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Hibberdene | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Port Shepstone | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
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Khabo-Mmekoa, C.M.N.; Momba, M.N.B. The Impact of Social Disparities on Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water Supply in Ugu District Municipality of Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162972
Khabo-Mmekoa CMN, Momba MNB. The Impact of Social Disparities on Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water Supply in Ugu District Municipality of Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(16):2972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162972
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhabo-Mmekoa, C. M. N., and M. N. B. Momba. 2019. "The Impact of Social Disparities on Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water Supply in Ugu District Municipality of Kwazulu-Natal Province, South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 16: 2972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162972