1. Introduction
Smoking is the leading cause of preventable mortality in U.S. and worldwide [
1,
2,
3,
4]. There is a critical need for innovative methods for harm reduction and smoking cessation, particularly among vulnerable populations such as smokers with mental health conditions (MHC) [
5,
6,
7,
8]. Over recent years, use of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS; e.g., e-cigarettes) has increased dramatically in the general U.S. population, most notably among individuals who smoke combustible cigarettes (e.g., traditional cigarettes) [
9,
10]. ENDS could offer a lower risk alternative to traditional cigarettes and/or have utility as a cessation tool for current smokers [
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16]. Hence it is not surprising that smokers who use ENDS often report quitting or reducing cigarette smoking as primary motives [
17,
18,
19]. However, some research has found that the use of e-cigarettes may be associated with a lower likelihood of quitting smoking [
20]. More research is needed to rigorously evaluate the effectiveness of ENDS for smoking cessation [
14,
15,
16] and, if they do have potential as a quitting aid, to understand any adverse effects including the possibilities of attracting youth or former smokers, renormalizing smoking, or maintaining addiction [
21,
22,
23]. Unfortunately, there is a relative dearth of research on ENDS among individuals with MHC, a priority population with high overall smoking rates and at risk for profound tobacco-related health effects [
5]. This study sought to document whether overall prevalence of ENDS use and rates of ENDS use in the context of smoking quit attempts differ for U.S. adults with or without MHC. Furthermore, potential risks of ENDS were examined by evaluating whether non-smokers and former smokers are considering using ENDS and whether individuals with MHC are more susceptible in this regard.
Although smoking rates have declined significantly in the general population [
1,
24], they remain disproportionately high among individuals with MHC [
5,
25,
26], and associations between smoking and psychopathology have actually strengthened over time [
27]. Smoking rates among adults with MHC are estimated to be more than double those of the U.S. general population and three to four times higher among those with conditions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder [
5,
7,
26,
28,
29]. In a recent epidemiological survey, individuals who met criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder represented 36.4% of the U.S. adult population but smoked 56.4% of all cigarettes consumed [
29]. Moreover, among smokers, those with MHC tend to smoke more heavily and have more difficulty quitting [
7,
28,
30]. Individuals with MHC may smoke for self-medication; however the association between MHC and smoking is likely bidirectional and explained by a variety of underlying mechanisms [
31].
Smokers with MHC are disproportionately burdened by the harm caused by cigarette smoking [
5]. Approximately half of deaths among patients hospitalized with a primary psychiatric disorder are due to tobacco-related diseases [
32]. Reviews of tobacco industry documents indicate that individuals with MHC have been specifically targeted, most notably by marketing to those with serious mental illness (SMI) and promoting smoking in psychiatric settings [
33,
34]. Smoking also imposes a significant financial burden on individuals with MHC, particularly those with SMI [
5].
Fortunately, smokers with MHC often express interest in quitting [
35], and smoking cessation is not only associated with reductions in depression and anxiety but also with increased quality of life among adults with MHC [
36]. If deemed a safer and satisfying alternative to combustible cigarettes, ENDS could be a valuable tool for smokers with MHC [
37]. Some emerging research suggests that ENDS have promise for harm reduction and/or smoking cessation, specifically among adults with MHC. In an uncontrolled pilot study, Caponnetto et al. [
38] invited 14 smokers with schizophrenia who were not currently interested in quitting smoking to use e-cigarettes. After one year, nine (64.3%) of the participants had either reduced their daily cigarette consumption by half (seven participants) or quit smoking completely (two participants). In another pilot study, combustible tobacco use declined among 19 smokers with SMI who were provided e-cigarettes for four weeks [
39]. In secondary analyses of a larger trial of ENDS for smoking cessation (
n = 657, including 86 smokers with MHC), O’Brien et al. [
40] reported that although smokers with MHC were more likely to relapse, the effects of e-cigarettes on quit rates did not differ by mental health status. Moreover, among smokers with MHC who did not quit, e-cigarettes containing nicotine were associated with greater reduction in cigarettes per day.
In the largest study of MHC and ENDS use to date, Cummins et al. [
41] documented associations between ENDS use and MHC status (as classified by self-reported diagnosis of anxiety disorder, depression, or “other MHC”) using a 2012 national probability survey of U.S. adults (
n = 10,041). Among current smokers, those with MHC were significantly more likely to be lifetime ENDS users than those without MHC (40% vs. 28.7%). Although not significant, there was a trend for current smokers with MHC to be more likely to currently use e-cigarettes than current smokers without MHC (8.6% vs. 5.4%). Among participants who had never tried e-cigarettes, current smokers with MHC indicated significantly greater susceptibility to e-cigarette use (i.e., higher self-reported likelihood of trying e-cigarettes in the future), compared to current smokers without MHC (60.5% vs. 45.3%). This 2012 study documented that adult smokers with MHC were more likely to use ENDS and were more susceptible to future ENDS use, compared to those without MHC. Continued surveillance of ENDS use over time in this priority population is warranted (e.g., the extent to which individuals with MHC are using ENDS specifically during attempts to quit smoking is unclear).
This study sought to build upon Cummins et al.’s [
41] 2012 findings by examining 2015 data (given that patterns of ENDS use have changed dramatically over recent years [
9]), by using more fine-grained MHC categories (including bipolar disorder and schizophrenia), by examining the extent to which smokers with MHC are using ENDS in smoking quit attempts (e.g., switching completely vs. partially to ENDS), and by more thoroughly assessing susceptibility to future ENDS use (e.g., likelihood of trying ENDS if offered by a friend). Our three primary aims were to examine whether adults with MHC exhibit different rates of: (1) use of ENDS (lifetime and current ENDS use); (2) use of ENDS specifically in the context of smoking quit attempts; and (3) susceptibility to future ENDS use. We hypothesized that individuals with MHC would be more likely to use ENDS and indicate higher likelihood of trying ENDS in the future compared to those without MHC. Based on Cummins et al.’s findings [
41], it was expected that these associations would be strongest among current smokers.
4. Discussion
Given the striking disparities experienced by smokers with MHC [
5,
6] and the relative dearth of knowledge regarding ENDS use among individuals with these conditions, this study documented ENDS usage and susceptibility among adults with vs. without MHC. As expected, in this large representative sample of U.S. adults, participants with MHC were more likely to report lifetime and current ENDS use. Based on previous findings [
41], it was hypothesized that this association would be most pronounced among current smokers. However, MHC status was most strongly linked to greater likelihood of lifetime ENDS use among former smokers, who indicated higher rates of using ENDS in a past smoking quit attempt. Additionally, among participants who had not tried ENDS, those with MHC indicated greater likelihood of trying ENDS in the future (especially among former smokers).
This study documented alarmingly high smoking rates among individuals with MHC, highlighting the urgent need to identify and disseminate effective cessation interventions for these populations [
5,
6,
7,
8]. Although ENDS may offer potential as a tool for harm reduction and/or smoking cessation, concern has been raised about whether ENDS might widen existing disparities in smoking. For example, the diffusion of new, health-relevant technological innovations is often slower for those who are poorer and less educated, in part due to the often higher costs of new technologies [
51]. Consistent with this concern, recent research has found that smokers with higher education are more likely to also use ENDS and that among dual users, those with a college education reported higher quit intentions and quit attempts than those with high school or less education [
52]. Another study found that when adjusting for education, those with incomes above $50,000 were more likely to use ENDS [
53]. Considering that those with mental illness are more likely to experience socioeconomic inequalities [
54], these concerns and questions about the harm reduction potential of ENDS and their impact on tobacco-related disparities naturally extend to populations with mental illness. The findings of the present study provide some insight into these concerns and questions.
Overall, participants with MHC were approximately 1.5 times more likely to have used ENDS in their lifetime and almost twice as likely to currently use ENDS as those without MHC. Given that former smokers with MHC were especially likely to have used ENDS during past smoking quit attempts, ENDS could provide a promising tool to reduce tobacco-related disparities for this population. If ENDS are an effective quitting aid, smokers with MHC may have much to gain. However, more research will be needed to clarify whether ENDS use reliably promotes smoking cessation for adults with specific MHCs. Small studies on ENDS use among smokers with MHC show promise, but results of larger studies in the general population have been mixed, and more rigorous research is needed [
11,
14,
15,
16,
20]. Furthermore, it will be important to ascertain whether ENDS are viewed as a more or less satisfying alternative to combustible cigarettes among individuals with MHC.
MHCs are often comorbid with one another, and comorbidity (vs. having a single diagnosis) has been associated with greater severity and disability (e.g., [
55,
56,
57]). In the current study, the number of self-reported MHC diagnoses was associated with higher likelihood of ENDS use. In fact, among former smokers, those reporting three or more MHCs were almost four times more likely to have used ENDS compared to those without any MHC. There are several possible reasons why individuals with more psychiatric symptoms or greater impairment might be most likely to use ENDS. For example, given that addictive disorders and other MHCs likely involve shared neurobiological pathways [
58,
59,
60], having a greater number of comorbid disorders might reflect a stronger genetic vulnerability to addiction. In addition, former smokers with more MHCs might be especially likely to use ENDS as a way to self-medicate psychiatric symptoms or offset medication side effects once they are no longer receiving nicotine through combustible cigarettes. However, relationships between MHCs and nicotine are complex, and comorbid disorders may have not only additive but also interactive effects [
56,
61]. More research is needed to understand how specific psychiatric symptoms, symptom severity, and level of disability are related to ENDS use.
Although we cannot make direct comparisons between our results and those presented by Cummins et al. [
41] because of some methodological differences (e.g., the current study assessed additional MHC categories; Cummins et al. examined sub-categories of former smokers), it is worth noting that the overall differences in ENDS use for U.S. adults with vs. without MHC were not as pronounced in our data. In Cummins et al.’s 2012 data [
41], lifetime ENDS use rates for adults with vs. without MHC were 14.8% vs. 6.6% (adults with MHC were more than twice as likely to be lifetime ENDS users than those without MHC), and current ENDS use rates were 3.1% vs. 1.1% (those with MHC were almost three times as likely to currently use ENDS). In our 2015 data, rates of ENDS use for participants with vs. without MHC were 24.4% vs. 15.5% (lifetime use) and 11.4% vs. 6.6% (current use). Although longitudinal studies will be necessary to statistically compare these trends over time, it is possible that the gap between adults with vs. without MHC has narrowed slightly. It could be that individuals with MHC were more likely to be early adopters of ENDS when they first became available, but that the gap has narrowed as ENDS use has become more common across the general population.
Although ENDS might have utility for helping current smokers to quit, their potential to attract non-smokers and former smokers has been raised as a concern [
21]. Our results suggest that former smokers with MHC might be a particularly vulnerable population in this regard. Among participants who had not tried ENDS, former smokers with MHC were six times more likely to indicate high likelihood of trying ENDS soon, over twice as likely to be highly curious about trying ENDS, and almost three times more likely to indicate high likelihood of trying ENDS if offered by a friend, compared to former smokers without MHC. The finding that former smokers with MHC are more susceptible to initiating ENDS use (
Table 6) is of concern. The potential advantage of ENDS for reducing the high smoking rates among those with MHC should be balanced against the risk of attracting former smokers with MHC.
The findings must be interpreted in the light of several limitations. This study relied on self-reports of MHC, ENDS use, and smoking status, without clinical diagnoses or biochemical confirmation of smoking. Furthermore, participants reported whether or not they had ever been diagnosed with a MHC. Thus, individuals classified as having a MHC may or may not currently have the condition. However, the majority of participants who indicated MHC diagnoses did report that they had sought mental health services, thus increasing our confidence that self-reported MHCs were valid and clinically significant. In addition, analyses of specific MHCs, particularly schizophrenia, may be less reliable due to smaller sample sizes. However, this study provides the latest available national estimates on an understudied research area. Future research should consider using clinical interviews to determine specific psychiatric diagnoses (and their time frames) using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; [
62]). Although the rates of several disorders in the current study are comparable to estimates from extant research (e.g., [
41,
62]), the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) found a higher prevalence rate for lifetime psychiatric disorders (46.4%, compared to 18.0% in the current study) [
63] (NCS-R used diagnostic interviews and likely identified people with MHCs who had not been formally diagnosed by a medical provider). Future studies might also assess conditions not included in the current dataset, including substance use disorders or personality disorders.
This study is subject to the inherent limitations of cross-sectional data. Longitudinal research will be critical for understanding prospective associations between ENDS use and cessation among people with vs. without MHC, and randomized controlled trials of ENDS for smoking cessation (vs. more traditional treatment methods like nicotine replacement therapy and counseling) will enhance our understanding of whether ENDS are differentially effective as a cessation tool for individuals with vs. without specific MHCs. Finally, because this study examined a novel topic and it was deemed important to delve into associations between MHC and ENDS use separately by smoking status, a relatively large number of analyses were conducted. Given the potential for this approach to inflate Type I error, we suggest that readers examine point estimates and confidence intervals in addition to p-values. Replication will be needed to increase confidence in the findings.