Metal-Free Carbon-Based Materials: Promising Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Microbial Fuel Cells
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanism of Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Cathode
3. Cathode Control Energy Loss in Microbial Fuel Cells
4. Requirements of an Ideal Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalyst
4.1. High Catalytic Activity
4.2. Cost Effectiveness
4.3. Long-Term Stability
5. Limitations of Metal-Based Catalysts
6. Why Carbon-Based Catalysts?
6.1. High Catalytic Activity and Durability
6.2. Cost Effectiveness
7. Carbon-Based Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts
7.1. Carbon Black
7.2. Activated Carbon
7.3. Carbon Nanomaterials
7.3.1. Graphene
7.3.2. Carbon Nanotubes
7.4. Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Materials
7.4.1. N-Doped Carbon
7.4.2. Other Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Materials
7.5. Carbon Materials from Sustainable Precursor
8. Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AC | Activated carbon |
CB | Carbon black |
CBr | Carbon brush |
CC | Carbon cloth |
CF | Carbon felt |
CG | Carbon granule |
CM | Carbon mesh |
CNFs | Carbon nanofibers |
CoNPc | Cobalt naphthalocyanine |
CNTs | Carbon nanotubes |
COD | Chemical oxygen demand |
CP | Carbon paper |
CuPc | Copperphthalocyanine |
CVD | Chemical vapor deposition |
DC | Direct current |
FePc | Iron phthalocyanine |
GBr | Graphite brush |
GC | Glassy carbon |
ITO | Indium tin oxide |
MFC | Microbial fuel cell |
mpg-C3N4 | Mesoporous carbon nitride |
MOFs | Metal-organic frameworks |
MWCNTs | Multi-walled carbon nanotubes |
OCP | Open circuit potential |
ORR | Oxygen reduction reaction |
PANI | Polyaniline |
PDDA | Polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride |
PDMS | Poly(dimethylsiloxane) |
PEDOT | Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) |
PEM | Proton-exchange membrane |
PEPU | Poly[bis(2-chloroethyl)ether-alt-1,3-bis[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]urea] |
PPy | Polypyrrole |
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene |
PVDF | Poly(vinylidene fluoride) |
PVDF-HFP | Poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) |
RDE | Rotating disk electrode |
r-Graphene oxide | Reduced graphene oxide |
RRDE | Rotating ring-disk electrode |
SEM | Scanning electron microscope |
SS | Stainless steel |
SWCNTs | Single-walled carbon nanotubes |
WP | Wipe-based |
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Catalysts | Catalyst Support | Casting Method | Power Output (mW/m2) | Performance Comparison | MFC Type | Bacteria Culture | Anode | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FePc/CB | CP | Drop casting | 17.37 | 4.2 times vs. CP | Double chamber | Enterobacter cloacae | CP | [70] |
FePc/CB (agitated) | CP | Drop casting | 140.30 | 13.7 times vs. FePc | Double chamber | Enterobacter cloacae | CB | [70] |
FePc/CB | CP | Drop casting | 7.55 | 4.5 times vs. CP | Double chamber | Beer brewery wastewater | CP | [70] |
FePc/CB (agitated) | CP | Drop casting | 38.34 | 7.8 times vs. FePc | Double chamber | Beer brewery wastewater | CB | [70] |
CoNPc/CB | CP | Brush casting | 64.7 | 0.8 times vs. Pt/C 2.2 times vs. NPc/CB 6.9 times vs. CB | Double chamber | Anaerobic digester sludge | CP | [73] |
ZrO2/CB | CC | Brush casting | 596 | 1.4 times vs. CB 0.6 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | domestic wastewater | GBr | [74] |
CuPc/CB | CP | Brush casting | 118.2 | 3.1 times vs. CB 2.1 times vs. Pc/CB 1.2 times vs. Ni/CB 0.99 times vs. Pt/C | Double chamber | Palm oil effluent | CP | [79] |
Nitric acid-treated CB | Membrane | Spray casting | 170 | 3.3 times vs. CB 0.8 times vs. Pc/CB | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CF | [80] |
10% CB/AC | SS mesh | Spoon casting | 1560 | 1.2 times vs. AC 1.1 times vs. 2% CB/AC 1.0 times vs. 5% CB/AC 1.0 times vs. 15% CB/AC 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | GBr | [43] |
PANI nanofiber/CB | CC | Brush casting | 496 | 2.7 times vs. PANI nanofiber 0.8 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CC | [81] |
PPy/CB | CC | - | 401.8 | 4.4 times vs. CB 0.7 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Activated sludge | CC | [15] |
Catalyst | Catalyst Support | Casting Method | Power Output (mW/m2) | Performance Comparison | MFC Type | Bacteria Culture | Anode | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AC | SS mesh | Press | 892 | 0.9 times vs. Pt/C (initial) 1.2 times vs. Pt/C (4 months) | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CBr | [92] |
AC | SS mesh | Rollingpress | 2348 | - | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | CBr | [93] |
AC (heat-treated) | SS mesh | Press | 1400 | 1.3 times vs. AC 1.1 times vs. AC/CB 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | GBr | [67] |
AC | SS mesh | Spatula | 1430 | 1.3 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | GBr | [76] |
AC | SS mesh (40 mesh) | Rolling press | 2151 | 1.5 times vs. AC on 80 Mesh SS | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CBr | [94] |
Modified AC | SS mesh | Rolling | 892 | 1.3 times vs. AC | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CBr | [95] |
Granular AC | - | - | 676 | 1.8 times vs. semi-coke 5.5 times vs. graphite 11.2 times vs. CF | Packed-bed | Pre-acclimated | GBr | [96] |
AC (coal-based) | SS mesh | Press | 1620 | Similar with AC (peat) 2.6 times vs. AC (hardwood) 0.8 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | CBr | [18] |
AC (KOH-treated) | SS mesh | Rollingpress | 957 | 1.2 times vs. AC 1.8 times vs. AC (HNO3-treated) | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | AC on SS mesh | [84] |
AC (not sintered catalyst layer) | SS mesh | Rolling | 1086 | 1.3 times vs. AC (sintered) | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | CM | [97] |
AC | Nickel foam | - | 1190 | 0.9 times vs. Pt/C on CC | Single chamber | Pre-acclimated | CBr | [85] |
Cathodes | Max. OCP (mV) | Max. Vol. Power Density (W/m3) | Max. Columbic Efficiency (%) | COD Removal Efficiency (%) | Internal Resistance (Ω) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Catalyst-free | 677 | 0.57 | 5.0 | 69.2 | 172 |
MnO2-NTs/Vulcan XC | 754 | 2.2 | 8.4 | 78.7 | 108 |
MnO2-NTs/MWCNTs | 793 | 3.94 | 11.0 | 82.9 | 97 |
MnO2-NTs/graphene | 812 | 4.68 | 11.5 | 83.7 | 85 |
Pt/C | 839 | 5.67 | 12.6 | 84.4 | 75 |
Electrode | Pt (0.5 mg/cm2) Coating Method | Power Density (mW/m2) |
---|---|---|
CC | - | 151 |
CC-Pt | 10% Pt/CB mixture (brush) | 1071 |
CNT Mat | - | 329 |
CNT Mat-Pt | 10% Pt/CB mixture (brush) | 1118 |
Single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs) | 117 | |
SWCNTs-Pt | Laboratory-synthesized SWCNTs; H2PtCl6 (Microwave) | 302 |
SWCNTs-Pt | Commercial SWCNTs; H2PtCl6 (Microwave) | 522 |
MWCNTs-Pt | Commercial MWCNTs; H2PtCl6 (Microwave) | 174 |
Catalyst | Catalyst Support | Casting Method | Power Output (mW/m2) | Performance Comparison | MFC Type | Bacteria Culture | Anode | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
r-Graphene oxide sheet | CC | - | 2.9 (W/m3) | 0.6 times vs. Pt/C | Double chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CBr | [55] |
r-Graphene oxide sheet | CC | - | 2.5 (W/m3) | 8.3 times vs. CC | Double chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CBr | [55] |
r-Graphene oxide particles | CC | - | 3.3 (W/m3) | 11.0 times vs. CC | Double chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CBr | [55] |
Graphene/PANI | GF | In situ deposition | 99 | 116.5 times vs. GF | Sediment | Residual sludge | Graphite | [104] |
Graphene/MnO2 | CP | Spray casting | 4.68 (W/m3) | 1.2 times vs. MWCNTs/MnO2 2.1 times vs. CB/MnO2 0.8 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Anaerobic consortia | CC | [105] |
Pt(15%)-Co/graphene | CC | - | 1378 | Almost similar with Pt/C (20%) | Single chamber | Domestic | CC | [13] |
r-Graphene oxide /PEDOT/Fe3O4 | CC | Spray casting | 3525 | 8.2 times vs. CC 4.5 times vs. Fe3O4 2.2 times vs. r-Graphene oxide/Fe3O4 1.5 times vs. r-Graphene oxide/PEDOT | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CC | [117] |
r-Graphene oxide/SnO2 | SS grid/CF | - | 80 | 1.6 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Seawater inoculums | CF | [118] |
Graphene/MnO2 | SS net | - | 2084 | 6.2 times vs. non-catalyzed 1.4 times vs. MnO2 1.2 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CF | [119] |
CNTs mat | - | - | 329 | 2.2 times vs. CC | Single chamber | Exoelectrogenic bacteria | GBr | [107] |
β-MnO2/CNT | CC | Spray casting | 97.8 | 4.4 times vs. α-MnO2/CNT 1.2 times vs. γ-MnO2/CNT 0.6 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CC | [120] |
Pt-Ni-MWCNTs | CC | - | 1220 | 0.9 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Predomesticated | CC | [121] |
Pt/modified CNTs | Titanium mesh | Brush casting | 911.3 | 2.0 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Local pond | CF | [122] |
CuSe/CNTs | CC | Brush casting | 425.9 | 1.7 times vs. CNTs 1.6 times vs. CuSe 0.9 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Activated sludge | CC | [114] |
Dual layered CNTs | SS | Spray casting | 207 | 2.4 times vs. Single layer CNTs 1.4 times vs. Pt/Graphite cloth | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | Graphite fabric | [112] |
MWCNTs | GF | Electrophoretic deposition | 214.7 | 1.6 times vs. GF | Sediment | - | GF | [110] |
MWCNTs | SS net | Electrophoretic deposition | 31.6 | 3.2 times vs. SS net | Sediment | - | SS net | [123] |
MnO2/CNT | CP | In situ synthesis | 210 | 2.3 times vs. MnO2/CNT (mechanical mixing) 0.9 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | GF | [124] |
PEPU-SWCNTs | CC | Spray casting | 270.1 | 2.3 times vs. PDDA-CNT 0.9 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Activated sludge | CC | [117] |
Catalyst | Doping Agent/Method | Catalyst Support | Power Output (mW/m2) | Performance Comparison | MFC Type | Bacteria Culture | Anode | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N-CNFs (activated) | PPy | CP | 1377 | 1.5 times vs. N-CNFs 4.0 times vs. CP | Double chamber | Sewage wastewater | CG | [130] |
N-carbon powder (pre-treated) | HNO3 treatment | CC | 934.7 | Almost similar with Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic sewage | CBr | [131] |
N-doped graphene | Cyanuric chloride | CC | 1350 | Almost similar to Pt/C | Single chamber | Suspended bacteria | CBr | [81] |
N-carbon powder | HNO3 treatment | CC | 222.5 | 0.9 times vs. Pt/C 1.1 times vs. Pt/C (with Na2S) | Double chamber | Domestic wastewater | CC | [146] |
N-graphene/C3N4 | NH4OH, cyanamide | CC | 1618 | 1.2 times vs. N-graphene 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Suspended bacteria | CBr | [128] |
Co3O4/N-graphene | NH4OH | ITO substrate | 1340 | 0.9 times vs. Pt/C | Double chamber | Shewanella oneidensis, MR-1 | CG | [147] |
Fe-N-AC | Ethylenediamine | SS mesh | 2437 | 2.1 times vs. AC | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CF | [148] |
Mesoporous N-carbon | Ethylenediamine | CC | 979 | 0.8 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | GBr | [149] |
N-CNT | Ethylenediamine | CC | 1600 | 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CBr | [54] |
N-carbon | NH3 gas | SS mesh | 1041 | 2.5 times vs. undoped carbon 1.8 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | GBr | [28] |
Porous N-carbon nanosheets/graphene | PANI | SS net | 1159 | 1.8 times vs. N-carbon 1.3 times vs. Pt/C 18.1 times vs. without catalyst | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CBr | [46] |
N-graphene | NH4OH | CP | 776 | Slightly higher than Pt/C | Double chamber | Activated sludge | CC | [129] |
Acid/base treated N-AC | Cyanamide | CC | 650 | 2.1 times vs. AC 1.6 times vs. N-AC 1.4 times vs. Pt/C 1.1 times vs. acid-treated N-AC | Double chamber | Digester effluent | CBr | [58] |
N-/P-doped carbon | Ammonium phosphate | SS mesh | 2293 | 2.9 times vs. N-carbon 2.6 times vs. P-carbon 1.4 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | GBr | [63] |
N-/F-CB | NH3, PTFE | SS mesh | 672 | 1.4 times vs. undoped carbon 1.1 times vs. F-carbon 1.3 times vs. N-carbon 1.2 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | --- | CM | [142] |
P-AC | H3PO4 | SS mesh | 1278 | 1.75 times vs. untreated AC 1.5 times vs. AC heated at 800 °C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CF | [138] |
N-/S-CNF | Spider silk | SS mesh | 1800 | 1.6 time vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | GBr | [145] |
N-/B-carbon nanoparticles | Polydopamine, Aminobenzene boronic acid | CC | 642 | 0.9 time vs. Pt/C 1.2 times vs. N-carbon nanoparticles 5.3 times vs. carbon nanoparticles | Single chamber | Anaerobic sludge | CC | [142] |
P-AC | H3PO4 | SS mesh | 1096 | 1.5 times vs. AC | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CF | [139] |
P-carbon | Cellulose phosphate | SS mesh | 1312 | 2.6 times vs. undoped carbon 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | GBr | [140] |
N-/S-carbon nanosheets | NH3, Diphenyl disulfide | CC | 1500 | 0.65 times vs. Pt/C | Double chamber | - | CBr | [66] |
Si-/F-porous carbon | SiO2, Ammonium fluoride | SS mesh | 1026 | 1.1 times vs. Pt/C | Single chamber | Domestic wastewater | CM | [143] |
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Sawant, S.Y.; Han, T.H.; Cho, M.H. Metal-Free Carbon-Based Materials: Promising Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Microbial Fuel Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010025
Sawant SY, Han TH, Cho MH. Metal-Free Carbon-Based Materials: Promising Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Microbial Fuel Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017; 18(1):25. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010025
Chicago/Turabian StyleSawant, Sandesh Y., Thi Hiep Han, and Moo Hwan Cho. 2017. "Metal-Free Carbon-Based Materials: Promising Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Microbial Fuel Cells" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 18, no. 1: 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010025