Status of Water Quality for Human Consumption in High-Andean Rural Communities: Discrepancies between Techniques for Identifying Trace Metals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Area under Study
2.2. Sampling Points
2.3. Water Analysis Procedures
2.3.1. Determination of Physical–Chemical Parameters
2.3.2. Determination of Total and Thermotolerant Coliforms
2.3.3. Determination of Parasites and Free-Living Organisms
2.3.4. Determination of Trace Metals
3. Results
3.1. Water Quality in High-Andean Rural Communities
3.1.1. Pueblo Libre
3.1.2. San Gerónimo
3.1.3. Sachapite
3.1.4. Pampachacra
3.1.5. Antacoccha
3.2. Comparison of Two Different Techniques to Identify Trace Levels of Metals in Water
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Sampling Points
Community | Description | Label | Elevation (m.a.s.l.) |
---|---|---|---|
Pueblo libre | Spring 1 | PU1 | 4188 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 2 | PU2 | 4181 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 3 | PU3 | 4184 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 4 | PU4 | 4179 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 6 | PU5 | 4175 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 8 | PU6 | 4170 |
Pueblo libre | Spring 9 | PU7 | 4154 |
Pueblo libre | Water reservoir | PU8 | 4072 |
Pueblo libre | Household | PU9 | 3899 |
San Gerónimo | Spring Puquiocucho 1 | SG1 | 3893 |
San Gerónimo | Spring Putaccapuquio | SG2 | 3822 |
San Gerónimo | Puquiocucho water reservoir | SG3 | 3821 |
San Gerónimo | Putaccapuquio water reservoir | SG4 | 3757 |
San Gerónimo | Puquiocucho household | SG5 | 3771 |
San Gerónimo | Putaccapuquio household | SG6 | 3720 |
Sachapite | Spring Huariccacca | SA1 | 4328 |
Sachapite | Spring Picchapuquio | SA2 | 4273 |
Sachapite | Huariccacca water reservoir | SA3 | 4191 |
Sachapite | Picchapuquio water reservoir | SA4 | 4206 |
Sachapite | Huariccacca household | SA5 | 4121 |
Sachapite | Picchapuquio household | SA6 | 4162 |
Pampachacra | Spring Barrio Villa Libertad | PA1 | 3957 |
Pampachacra | Spring Barrio Imperial (Asto1) | PA2 | 4258 |
Pampachacra | Spring Barrio Imperial (Asto2) | PA3 | 4279 |
Pampachacra | Spring 1 Barrio Condorsenca | PA4 | 4296 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Villa Libertad water reservoir | PA5 | 3925 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Imperial water reservoir | PA6 | 4101 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Villa Libertad household | PA7 | 3888 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Imperial household | PA8 | 4037 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Condorsenca household | PA9 | 4055 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Centro household | PA10 | 4000 |
Pampachacra | Barrio Miraflores household | PA11 | 4027 |
Antaccocha | Spring sector 1 | AN1 | 4176 |
Antaccocha | Spring sector 2 | AN2 | 4176 |
Antaccocha | Spring sector 3 and 5 | AN3 | 4246 |
Antaccocha | Spring sector 4 | AN4 | 4259 |
Antaccocha | Spring Mulaccarana | AN5 | 3893 |
Antaccocha | Sector 1 water reservoir | AN6 | 3979 |
Antaccocha | Sector 2 water reservoir | AN7 | 4108 |
Antaccocha | Sector 3 and 5 water reservoir | AN8 | 4005 |
Antaccocha | Sector 4 water reservoir | AN9 | 3991 |
Antaccocha | Sector 1 household | AN10 | 3839 |
Antaccocha | Sector 2 household | AN11 | 3911 |
Antaccocha | Sector 4 household | AN12 | 3780 |
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Community | Springs | Water Reservoirs | Households |
---|---|---|---|
Pueblo Libre | 7 | 1 | 1 |
San Gerónimo | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Sachapite | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Antaccocha | 5 | 4 | 3 |
Pampachacra | 4 | 2 | 5 |
Parameter | Analysis Method | Sampling Points |
---|---|---|
Physicochemical Parameters | ||
Turbidity | HI93703 Portable Turbidity Meter (Hanna Instruments, USA) (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network). Range of detection: 0–1000 NTU | Springs, water reservoirs, and households |
pH, conductivity | Portable meter HQ40d (Hach, USA) (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network) Range of detection: pH (0–14), conductivity (0.01 µS/cm–200.0 mS/cm) | |
Free residual chlorine (FRC) | HI96734 Portable photometer for free and total chlorine (Hanna Instruments, USA) (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network). Range of detection: 0–10 mg/L | |
Color | Spectrophotometry (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network) | |
Total hardness | SMEWW-APHA-AWWA-WEF Part 2340 C, 23rd Ed.2017. Hardness. EDTA Titrimetric Method. Laboratory CERPER S.A. (Spanish acronym of the laboratory Certifications of Peru S.A.), Lima. (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network.) | Springs |
Chlorides | EPA Method 300.0. 1993 Determination of inorganic anions by ion chromatography [35]. Laboratory CERPER S.A., Lima. (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network.) | |
Nitrates | ||
Nitrites | ||
Sulfates | ||
Microbiological and Parasitological Parameters | ||
Total and thermotolerant (fecal) coliforms | Most probable number (MPN) method [36] (Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology—UNH) | Springs, water reservoirs and households |
Parasites and free-living organisms | Protocol to detect protozoa and parasitic helminths in natural water using a Sedgewick Rafter Counting Chambers [37,38] (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network) | |
Inorganic Parameters | ||
Molybdenum (Mo), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), aluminum (Al). | ISO 17294-2. 2016. Water quality—application of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [39] Laboratory CERPER S.A., Lima. The limits of detection (mg/L) of the ICP-MS method were: Mo: 0.0002; Mn: 0.00025; Cd: 0.00005; As: 0.0005; Cu: 0.0003; Cr: 0.0005; Zn: 0.0005; Al: 0.0025; Pb: 0.0002; and Sb: 0.0002. (Environmental Health Unit of the Huancavelica Health Network) | Springs |
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)—3111 metals by flame atomic absorption spectrometry [40]. The limits of detection (mg/L) of the AAS method were: Mo: 0.03; Mn: 0.006; Cd: 0.0039; As: 0.12; Cu: 0.0099; Cr: 0.015; Zn: 0.003; Al: 0.09; Pb: 0.021; and Sb: 0.069.(Chemistry Laboratory—UNH) |
Community | Springs | Water Reservoirs | Households | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P | N | T | NC | %NC | C | P | N | T | NC | %NC | C | P | N | T | NC | %NC | C | |
Physicochemical parameters | ||||||||||||||||||
Pueblo Libre | 7 | 10 | 70 | 0 | 0.0% | 70 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 20.0% | 4 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 20.0% | 4 |
San Gerónimo | 2 | 10 | 20 | 0 | 0.0% | 20 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 1 | 10.0% | 9 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 2 | 20.0% | 8 |
Sachapite | 2 | 10 | 20 | 0 | 0.0% | 20 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 2 | 20.0% | 8 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 2 | 20.0% | 8 |
Antaccocha | 5 | 10 | 50 | 2 | 4.0% | 48 | 4 | 5 | 20 | 3 | 15.0% | 17 | 3 | 5 | 15 | 4 | 26.7% | 11 |
Pampachacra | 4 | 10 | 40 | 1 | 2.5% | 39 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 2 | 20.0% | 8 | 5 | 5 | 25 | 6 | 24.0% | 19 |
Total | 200 | 3 | 1.5% | 197 | 55 | 9 | 16.4% | 46 | 65 | 15 | 23.1% | 50 | ||||||
Microbiological and parasitological parameters | ||||||||||||||||||
Pueblo Libre | 7 | 4 | 28 | 4 | 14.3% | 24 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 50.0% | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 25.0% | 3 |
San Gerónimo | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 37.5% | 5 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 25.0% | 6 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 25.0% | 6 |
Sachapite | 2 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 25.0% | 6 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 25.0% | 6 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0.0% | 8 |
Antaccocha | 5 | - | 16 | 0 | 0.0% | 16 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 0 | 0.0% | 8 | 3 | - | 5 | 2 | 40.0% | 3 |
Pampachacra | 4 | 4 | 16 | 2 | 12.5% | 14 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 0.0% | 4 | 5 | 2 | 10 | 0 | 0.0% | 10 |
Total | 76 | 11 | 14.5% | 65 | 32 | 6 | 18.8% | 26 | 35 | 5 | 14.3% | 30 |
Springs | Mo (mg/L) | Mn (mg/L) | Cd (mg/L) | As (mg/L) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | |
AN1 | 0.11 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00092 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
AN2 | 0.10 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00063 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
AN3 | 0.06 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00431 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
AN4 | 0.12 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00578 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
AN5 | 0.06 | <0.0002 | 0.05 | 0.02029 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU1 | 0.0599 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00187 | 0.0042 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU2 | 0.0661 | <0.0002 | 0.0456 | 0.04446 | 0.0083 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU3 | 0.0743 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.0076 | 0.0111 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU4 | 0.0728 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00197 | 0.0109 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU5 | 0.0712 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.08141 | 0.0108 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU6 | 0.0711 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00484 | 0.0113 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PU7 | 0.0726 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00782 | 0.0108 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PA1 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00743 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
PA2 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00082 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | 0.00755 |
PA3 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00282 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | 0.00225 |
PA4 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.01908 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | 0.00241 |
SG1 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.001 | 0.0104 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
SG2 | <0.03 | 0.00146 | <0.006 | <0.00025 | 0.0103 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | 0.00326 |
SA1 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | 0.00835 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
SA2 | <0.03 | <0.0002 | <0.006 | <0.00025 | <0.0039 | <0.00005 | <0.12 | <0.0005 |
LOD | 0.03 | 0.0002 | 0.006 | 0.00025 | 0.0039 | 0.00005 | 0.12 | 0.0005 |
ECA 1 | 0.07 | 0.4 | 0.003 | 0.01 | ||||
WHO 2 | - | - | 0.003 | 0.01 |
Springs | Cu (mg/L) | Cr (mg/L) | Zn (mg/L) | Al (mg/L) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | AAS | ICP-MS | |
AN1 | <0.0099 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00741 | 0.0021 | <0.09 | 0.01629 |
AN2 | 0.015 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00693 | 0.0064 | <0.09 | 0.01829 |
AN3 | 0.012 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00674 | 0.0037 | 0.12275 | 0.187 |
AN4 | 0.016 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00596 | 0.004 | 0.21218 | 0.2662 |
AN5 | <0.0099 | 0.00231 | <0.015 | 0.00306 | 0.00863 | 0.0198 | 3.47493 | 0.6782 |
PU1 | 0.0156 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | <0.003 | 0.003 | <0.09 | 0.00843 |
PU2 | 0.0216 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | <0.003 | 0.0043 | <0.09 | 0.0079 |
PU3 | 0.0230 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00371 | 0.0086 | <0.09 | 0.02019 |
PU4 | 0.0257 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00401 | 0.0073 | <0.09 | 0.03098 |
PU5 | 0.0275 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00359 | 0.0029 | <0.09 | 0.03898 |
PU6 | 0.0275 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00684 | 0.0055 | <0.09 | 0.08187 |
PU7 | 0.0309 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00545 | 0.0046 | <0.09 | 0.02383 |
PA1 | <0.0099 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.01327 | <0.0005 | <0.09 | 0.01492 |
PA2 | <0.0099 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00914 | <0.0005 | <0.09 | 0.02241 |
PA3 | 0.010 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00745 | 0.0024 | <0.09 | 0.0739 |
PA4 | 0.011 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.01158 | 0.0129 | <0.09 | 0.4514 |
SG1 | 0.0365 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00392 | 0.0031 | <0.09 | 0.01511 |
SG2 | 0.0356 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.00405 | 0.009 | <0.09 | 0.01369 |
SA1 | <0.0099 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.01442 | 0.004 | <0.09 | 0.05489 |
SA2 | 0.013 | <0.0003 | <0.015 | <0.0005 | 0.01331 | 0.0019 | <0.09 | 0.02583 |
LOD | 0.0099 | 0.0003 | 0.015 | 0.0005 | 0.003 | 0.0005 | 0.09 | 0.0025 |
ECA 1 | 2 | 0.05 | 3 | 0.9 | ||||
WHO 2 | 2 | 0.05 | - | 0.1 |
Parameters | Community | Method | Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|
AAS 1 | ICP-MS 2 | (p-Value) | ||
Cu (mg/L) | AN2 | 0.0154 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0078 ** |
AN3 | 0.0115 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0139 * | |
AN4 | 0.0158 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0074 ** | |
PU1 | 0.0156 ± 0.0043 | <0.0003 | 0.0125 * | |
PU2 | 0.0216 ± 0.0021 | <0.0003 | 0.0016 *** | |
PU3 | 0.023 ± 0.0009 | <0.0003 | 0.0002 *** | |
PU4 | 0.0257 ± 0.0013 | <0.0003 | 0.0004 *** | |
PU5 | 0.0275 ± 0.0042 | <0.0003 | 0.004 *** | |
PU6 | 0.0275 ± 0.0011 | <0.0003 | 0.0003 *** | |
PU7 | 0.0309 ± 0.0007 | <0.0003 | 0.0001 *** | |
PA3 | 0.0104 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0169 * | |
PA4 | 0.0113 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0144 * | |
SG1 | 0.0365 ± 0.0074 | <0.0003 | 0.0068 ** | |
SG2 | 0.0356 ± 0.0014 | <0.0003 | 0.0003 *** | |
SA2 | 0.0129 ± 0.0033 (*) | <0.0003 | 0.0111 * | |
Mo (mg/L) | AN1 | 0.1074 ± 0.0107 (*) | <0.0002 | 0.0017 *** |
AN2 | 0.0964 ± 0.01 (*) | <0.0002 | 0.0018 *** | |
AN3 | 0.0632 ± 0.01 (*) | <0.0002 | 0.0041 *** | |
AN4 | 0.1245 ± 0.0125 (*) | <0.0002 | 0.0017 *** | |
AN5 | 0.0618 ± 0.01 (*) | <0.0002 | 0.0043 *** | |
PU1 | 0.0599 ± 0.0057 | <0.0002 | 0.0015 *** | |
PU2 | 0.0661 ± 0.0023 | <0.0002 | 0.0002 *** | |
PU3 | 0.0743 ± 0.0092 | <0.0002 | 0.0025 *** | |
PU4 | 0.0728 ± 0.005 | <0.0002 | 0.0008 *** | |
PU5 | 0.0712 ± 0.0038 | <0.0002 | 0.0005 *** | |
PU6 | 0.0711 ± 0.0025 | <0.0002 | 0.0002 *** | |
PU7 | 0.0726 ± 0.003 | <0.0002 | 0.0003 *** | |
Mn (mg/L) | AN5 | 0.0549 ± 0.0055 (*) | 0.02029 ± 0.0004 | 0.0083 ** |
PU2 | 0.0456 ± 0.0017 | 0.04446 ± 0.0009 | 0.4357 | |
PU3 | <0.006 | 0.0076 ± 0.0007 | 0.0936 | |
PU5 | <0.006 | 0.08141 ± 0.0017 | 0.0051 ** | |
PU7 | <0.006 | 0.00782 ± 0.0007 | 0.0828 | |
PA1 | <0.006 | 0.00743 ± 0.0007 | 0.104 | |
PA4 | <0.006 | 0.01908 ± 0.0006 | 0.0111* | |
SA1 | <0.006 | 0.00835 ± 0.0007 | 0.0642 |
Parameters | Community | Method | Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|
AAS 1 | ICP-MS 2 | (p-Value) | ||
Al (mg/L) | AN3 | 0.1227 ± 0.030 (*) | 0.187 ± 0.0295 | 0.1411 |
AN4 | 0.2122 ± 0.030 (*) | 0.2662 ± 0.042 | 0.3609 | |
AN5 | 3.4749 ± 0.3475 (*) | 0.6782 ± 0.107 | 0.0058 ** | |
PA4 | <0.09 | 0.4514 ± 0.0712 | 0.0441 * | |
Cd (mg/L) | PU1 | 0.0042 ± 0.0014 | <0.00005 | 0.0173 * |
PU2 | 0.0083 ± 0.0014 | <0.00005 | 0.0051 ** | |
PU3 | 0.0111 ± 0.0003 | <0.00005 | 0.0001 *** | |
PU4 | 0.0109 ± 0.0007 | <0.00005 | 0.0007 *** | |
PU5 | 0.0108 ± 0.0003 | <0.00005 | 0.0001 *** | |
PU6 | 0.0113 ± 0.0011 | <0.00005 | 0.0017 * | |
PU7 | 0.0108 ± 0.0002 | <0.00005 | 0.0001 *** | |
SG1 | 0.0104 ± 0.0003 | <0.00005 | 0.0002 *** | |
SG2 | 0.0103 ± 0.0004 | <0.00005 | 0.0002 *** | |
Zn (mg/L) | AN1 | 0.0074 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0021 ± 0.0006 | 0.0178 * |
AN2 | 0.0069 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0064 ± 0.0006 | 0.5472 | |
AN3 | 0.0067 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0037 ± 0.0006 | 0.0499 * | |
AN4 | 0.006 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.004 ± 0.0006 | 0.1028 | |
AN5 | 0.0086 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0198 ± 0.0007 | 0.0046 *** | |
PU2 | <0.003 | 0.0043 ± 0.0006 | 0.0925 | |
PU3 | 0.0037 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0086 ± 0.0006 | 0.0196 * | |
PU4 | 0.004 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0073 ± 0.0006 | 0.0417 * | |
PU5 | 0.0036 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0029 ± 0.0006 | 0.4205 | |
PU6 | 0.0068 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0055 ± 0.0006 | 0.2028 | |
PU7 | 0.0055 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0046 ± 0.0006 | 0.3253 | |
PA1 | 0.0133 ± 0.0013 (*) | <0.0005 | 0.0018 *** | |
PA2 | 0.0091 ± 0.001 (*) | <0.0005 | 0.0022 *** | |
PA3 | 0.0074 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0024 ± 0.0006 | 0.0188 * | |
PA4 | 0.0116 ± 0.0012 (*) | 0.0129 ± 0.0006 | 0.2427 | |
SG1 | 0.0039 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.0031 ± 0.0006 | 0.3693 | |
SG2 | 0.0040 ± 0.001 (*) | 0.009 ± 0.0006 | 0.0188 * | |
SA1 | 0.0144 ± 0.0014 (*) | 0.004 ± 0.0006 | 0.0077 ** | |
SA2 | 0.0133 ± 0.0013 (*) | 0.0019 ± 0.0006 | 0.0059 ** |
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Quispe-Coica, A.; Fernández, S.; Acharte Lume, L.; Pérez-Foguet, A. Status of Water Quality for Human Consumption in High-Andean Rural Communities: Discrepancies between Techniques for Identifying Trace Metals. J 2020, 3, 162-180. https://doi.org/10.3390/j3020014
Quispe-Coica A, Fernández S, Acharte Lume L, Pérez-Foguet A. Status of Water Quality for Human Consumption in High-Andean Rural Communities: Discrepancies between Techniques for Identifying Trace Metals. J. 2020; 3(2):162-180. https://doi.org/10.3390/j3020014
Chicago/Turabian StyleQuispe-Coica, Alejandro, Sonia Fernández, Luz Acharte Lume, and Agustí Pérez-Foguet. 2020. "Status of Water Quality for Human Consumption in High-Andean Rural Communities: Discrepancies between Techniques for Identifying Trace Metals" J 3, no. 2: 162-180. https://doi.org/10.3390/j3020014