3.1. Results of Numerical Calculations
As shown in [
18,
19], an acetylene–oxygen explosive mixture (EM) should be used to implement the detonation spraying of refractory materials (materials with a melting point exceeding 3000 K). Experiments with tungsten carbide, which has a high melting point (
Tm = 3058 K), have shown the need to choose the composition of EM in a narrow range, so that the temperature of the detonation products (DP) should be close to the maximum value (≈4500 K). The deposition of Cr
3C
2 (
Tm = 2168 K) can presumably be carried out in a wider range of EM compositions, since its melting point is almost 900 K lower. Therefore, the calculations of the main detonation parameters—in particular, the temperature and kinetic head of the DP and their composition—were performed with a variation in the oxygen/carbon ratio
k in the range from 0.8 to 3.0 for the C
2H
2 +
kO
2 acetylene–oxygen mixtures. The kinetic head is the product of the density and the square of the mass velocity of the DP, divided in half. Note that in fuel-depleted EM (
k > 1), atomic oxygen is contained in DP, and in fuel-rich EM (
k < 1), atomic carbon is present in DP. As a result, at high DP temperatures, the presence of atomic oxygen can cause the decarburization of chromium carbide [
20], while new carbide phases can form in an environment containing atomic carbon [
21].
Figure 2 and
Figure 3 show the calculated detonation parameters of acetylene–oxygen C
2H
2 +
kO
2 mixtures with
k in the range from 0.8 to 3.0. In the entire range 0.8 ≤
k ≤ 3.0, the temperature of DP does not fall below 4000 K. At
k = 1.2, it reaches a maximum of 4536 K. This temperature is sufficient for melting refractory materials—for example, metallic tungsten (
Tm = 3695 K) or its carbide (
Tm = 3058 K). The kinetic head, which determines the acceleration of the particles, remains high (approximately 1.8 MPa) in the
k range from 0.8 to 1.25, with a maximum value of 1.85 MPa reached at
k = 1. Further, with increasing
k, this parameter monotonically decreases and reaches a value of 1.3 MPa at
k = 3.0.
Figure 3 shows that in the range 0.8 ≤
k ≤ 1.0, the main components of DP are reducing agents: CO, H
2 and H. Atomic carbon is also present at a low concentration. At
k ≥ 1.0, in the DP, active oxidants, O and OH, appear. Their amounts gradually increase, reaching values of approximately 0.6 mol per mol of C
2H
2 at
k = 3.0.
Figure 4 illustrates the detonation spraying process, for which calculations were performed. Calculations for the C
2H
2 + O
2 (
k = 1) mixture chosen as the base one showed that, in a barrel with a diameter of 20 mm and a length of 1000 mm, filled with EM up to the powder injection point (
Lip =
Lb −
Lec), Cr
3C
2 particles are heated up to the melting point.
Figure 5 illustrates how the temperature and velocity of the particles change as the latter move from the injection point to the exit from the barrel. As the particle accelerates and moves under the influence of DP, its position in the barrel is described by the
X coordinate, counted from the end of the barrel. It can be seen in
Figure 5 that even the largest particles with a size of 20 μm fly out of the barrel in a molten state, when injected at
Lip = 400 mm. Particles with a size of 10 μm are heated in the barrel up to the melting point by running 150 mm from the injection point (
Figure 5a) and fly out of the barrel in a molten state with a temperature of approximately 2300 K. Other particles with sizes of 15 μm and 20 μm fly out in a molten state with a temperature equal to the melting point. As seen in
Figure 5b, the particle velocities at the barrel exit range from 630 m/s to 730 m/s.
Figure 6 shows the evolution of the temperature and velocity of Cr
3C
2 particles with a size of 15 μm as the latter move in the barrel for different
k and a constant volume of the explosive mixture. It can be seen that as
k is increased from 1.0 to 2.5, the temperature of the particles increases to 3000 K (
Figure 6a). As
k is further increased, the temperature begins to decrease. The increase in the particle temperature with an increase in
k from 1 to 2.5 is due to an increase in the time of exposure of the particles to hot DP in the detonation gun barrel, since the particle velocity decreases (
Figure 6b). The decrease in temperature observed at
k < 2.5 is associated with a drop in the DP temperature, the particle velocities remaining sufficiently high.
Figure 6 also shows that the value of
k has a much stronger effect on the temperature than on the velocity of the particles flying out of the barrel. The maximum velocity of a particle with a size of 15 μm is gained quickly at a run of approximately 100 mm; at the same time, the temperature at
k > 1 is constantly increasing, reaching a maximum at the barrel exit.
3.2. Experimental Results
The experiments on detonation spraying were carried out on a detonation gun with a barrel diameter of 20 mm and a length of 1000 mm. The Cr
3C
2 powder was injected into the barrel at a distance of 400 mm from its end. The C
2H
2 +
kO
2 explosive mixture filled the barrel up to the injection point of the powder, so that the length of the explosive charge was
Lec = 600 mm (see
Figure 4). The main goal was to study the effect of
k on the composition and properties of the coatings.
When chromium carbide with a nichrome binder is detonation-sprayed, the spraying distance of
L = 200 ± 50 mm is the optimal one, since, at this spraying distance, the hardness and wear resistance of the coatings reach their maxima, while the porosity of the coatings does not exceed 0.3% at
L ranging from 50 to 300 mm [
6]. Therefore, in this work,
L = 200 mm was chosen as the base spraying distance, at which coatings were obtained using different values of
k. The coatings were sprayed onto substrates of low-carbon steel with a size of 50 × 70 × 2 mm
3. It was found that the coating was formed only at
k ≥ 0.8. An important technological parameter is DE, characterizing the losses of the powder during spraying, as defined in
Section 2. At
k = 0.8, up to 40% of the powder is deposited on the substrate, i.e., DE = 40%.
Figure 7 illustrates the dependence of DE on
k, showing that in the range of
k from 0.8 to 1.3, the value of DE does not change significantly and is around 40%. With a further increase in
k, DE decreases, remaining at a level of 30% in the
k range of 1.5–3.0.
One of the methods to pre-evaluate the quality of the coating is to study the coating spot formed by a series of shots on a substrate without scanning the surface.
Figure 8 shows that, as
k increases from 0.8 to 1.3, the quality of the coating improves, the spot becoming more uniform, showing no traces of erosion of the material. At the same time, the DE remains at a level of 40%. With a further increase in
k, the DE decreases, and, in the range of
k from 1.5 to 3.0, it is at a level of 30% (
Figure 7). At
k exceeding 2.0, because of the high concentrations of the oxidizing components in the DP, the decarburization of Cr
3C
2 and even the oxidation of metallic chromium occur (
Figure 9). As the phase composition of the deposited material changes, the color of the spot also changes, from light gray to dark gray.
Figure 10 shows the microstructure of the coatings obtained at different
k, while
Figure 11 shows their hardness and porosity. The coating sprayed at
k = 0.8 is characterized by porosity of 2%. With increasing
k, the resultant coatings have a structure consisting of tightly packed lamellae. The porosity of these coatings decreases to 1%.
In accordance with the changes in the phase composition and microstructure, the coatings sprayed at different
k differ in hardness (
Figure 11). At
k = 0.8 and
k = 0.9, coatings with porosity of 1.5–2.0% and microhardness of approximately 700 HV
0.1 are formed. These coatings contain chromium carbide Cr
3C
2 and chromium carbonitride Cr
3N
0.4C
1.6 (
Figure 9b). With an increase in
k, the porosity of the coatings drops to 1%: at
k = 1.0 and 1.1, the microhardness of the coatings is ≈800–900 HV
0.1. In the
k range from 1.3 to 2.5, the microhardness drops slightly to ≈700–800 HV
0.1, apparently due to the presence of metallic Cr (
Figure 9c,d). With a further increase in
k and the formation of oxides in the coatings (
Figure 9d), the microhardness increases again.
The dependence of DE on the spraying distance
L was determined using an explosive mixture with
k = 1 (
Figure 12). At distances up to 100 mm, DE reaches 50–60%, which is a high value for thermal spraying. As the distance is further increased, the DE monotonously decreases, reaching 25–30% at a distance of 300 mm.
The most important performance characteristics of machine parts with functional coatings, which determine their working life, are the bonding strength of the coating to the substrate (adhesion), the strength of the coating itself (cohesion) and the coating’s resistance to abrasive wear. To study the properties of the coatings, samples were prepared at
k varying from 0.8 to 3.0. The adhesion of the coatings was measured according to the ASTM C633 standard. During testing, the grips of the testing machine clung to the rods, which were glued to the coating and the substrate with ULTRABOND-100TM glue. During testing, the failure of samples occurred through the coating layer, which means that the coating strength (cohesion) was actually measured. Obviously, in this case, the adhesion was higher than the cohesion. The test results are shown in
Figure 13, from which it is clear that the coating strength values are in the range from 19 to 30 MPa.
Testing of the coatings under abrasive wear conditions was carried out according to the ASTM G65 standard, according to which the test sample is pressed against a rotating wheel covered with rubber on the rim, and a granular abrasive is fed into the friction zone. The abrasive wear is measured by the loss of sample volume per 1000 revolutions of the rubberized wheel. Before testing, the coatings were ground on a diamond disc. This treatment provides a surface roughness not worse than 0.8 microns, which is required by the ASTM G65 standard. The thickness of the test coatings was 300 ± 50 microns. Testing was performed according to procedure B of the mentioned standard. The sample was pressed against a rubberized disk with a force of 130 N, the total number of revolutions of the disk was 2000 (abrading distance 1436 m), and the consumption of granular abrasive was 300–400 g/min. The dependence of the volumetric wear of the coatings on
k is shown in
Figure 14.
As seen in
Figure 14, coatings sprayed at
k = 0.8 and
k = 0.9 are characterized by the maximum wear. This can be explained by the low microhardness, low cohesion and high porosity of these coatings (
Figure 11 and
Figure 13). With increasing
k, coatings consisting of chromium carbide Cr
3C
2 and chromium carbonitride Cr
3N
0.4C
1.6 become denser and have higher microhardness and cohesion, which leads to a decrease in wear to a level of 15 mm
3/1000 rev. In the range of
k from 1.3 to 2.0, dense, but less hard coatings are obtained due to the formation of metallic chromium (
Figure 9c). As a result, their wear increases to 20 mm
3/1000 rev. Chromium oxides are formed in coatings sprayed with near-stoichiometric compositions of the acetylene–oxygen explosive mixture (
k = 2.0–3.0), which again leads to an increase in the resistance of the coatings to abrasive wear, which decreases to 15 mm
3/1000 rev.
To assess the residual stresses in the coatings, tests were carried out using the Almen method [
14,
15]. According to this method, residual stresses in the coating are calculated from the measured deflection of a thin metal substrate (strip), on which the coating is applied. In our experiments, a coating with a thickness of 100 ± 20 μm was applied to an Almen strip of type N grade 1 with a size of 75 × 19 × 0.8 mm
3, manufactured by Electronics Inc. (Mishawaka, IN, USA). After spraying, the strip bent under the influence of internal stresses so that the coating was on its convex surface (
Figure 15). This type of deflection corresponds to compressive residual stresses in the coating. The deflection of the Almen strip with the applied coating was 720 μm.
The average level of residual stresses in the coating was estimated using the following formula [
15]:
where
E,
μ,
δ and
l are the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and the thickness and length of the Almen strip;
t is the thickness of the coating, and
h is the deflection of the Almen strip. For an Almen strip made of SAE 1070 steel,
E = 2·10
5 MPa,
μ = 0.3,
δ = 0.8 mm,
l = 75 mm. With a coating thickness of
t = 0.1 mm and a deflection of the Almen strip of
h = 0.72 mm, the calculation according to (1) gives the value of compressive residual stresses of
σr = 312 MPa.
In the detonation spraying practice, it is known that an increase in the thickness of the coatings can sometimes lead to the formation of cracks and even the detachment of the coating from the substrate. However, in the present work, in the coatings up to 500 μm thick, sprayed on substrates of low-carbon steel with a size of 70 × 70 mm2, no signs of peeling or cracking were found.
3.3. Discussion
This work demonstrated the possibility of the detonation spraying of a binder-free Cr3C2 powder for the first time. Chromium carbide has a high melting point; therefore, high-energy acetylene–oxygen detonating mixtures (C2H2 + kO2) were chosen for the spraying. The k parameter reflects the oxygen to carbon molar ratio in the mixture. The calculation of the temperature and kinetic head of the detonation products, as well as the temperatures and velocities of the powder particles accelerated in the barrel of the detonation gun, proved the possibility of forming coatings from a Cr3C2 powder in a wide range of compositions of acetylene–oxygen explosive mixtures, with k varying between 0.8 and 3.0.
The experiments described above have shown that the phase and chemical composition of the coatings produced by the detonation spraying of a Cr
3C
2 powder change with
k (
Figure 9). Due to the chemical interactions of the powder particles with the active components of the DPs in the barrel of the detonation gun, composite coatings are formed. In particular, at
k ranging from 0.8 to 1.1, along with Cr
3C
2, the coatings contain chromium carbonitride, Cr
3N
0.4C
1.6. At
k ranging from 1.3 to 2.0, the main phases in coatings are Cr
7C
3 and Cr. In the coatings obtained at higher
k, CrO and Cr
2O
3 are present, along with the carbide phase, Cr
7C
3, and metallic chromium. Thus, ceramic coatings are formed only at values of
k up to 1.1. At
k exceeding 1.1, cermet coatings are formed. This is due to the appearance of oxidizing components (O, O
2, OH) in the detonation products (
Figure 3), which leads to the decarburization of Cr
3C
2.
Due to the high particle velocity and, accordingly, the manifestation of the peening effect, coatings with compressive residual stresses are formed. This is important from the point of view of the practical use of these coatings, since the compressive residual stresses are known to increase the fatigue strength of materials. The strength tests of the coatings by the glue method have shown that the bond strength of the coatings to the steel substrate (adhesion) is higher than the strength of the coating itself (cohesion), the latter reaching 30 MPa.
Interestingly, the resistance of the coatings to abrasive wear was found to be very sensitive to parameter k of the detonating mixture. Namely, in the range of k from 0.8 to 1.1, the wear resistance increases almost five-fold, and, with a further increase in k, it does not change significantly. Such an increase in the wear resistance seems to be associated with the transition from a ceramic to a cermet coating.
It should be noted that the mechanical properties and abrasive wear resistance of the coatings elaborated in the present study are inferior to those of Cr
3C
2-based detonation coatings with a nichrome binder [
6]. A coating with 20 wt. % of nichrome binder has microhardness of 1150 HV
0.3, strength of at least 150 MPa and abrasive wear of 3.25 mm
3/1000 rev. However, nichrome melts at 1373 K (solidus temperature). It can be assumed that coatings made by spraying binder-free Cr
3C
2 will be able to withstand higher temperatures. Note that metallic chromium is a refractory metal and has a melting point of 2073 K. Thus, all components of the composite coatings produced by spraying Cr
3C
2 are refractory.
In addition to corrosion-resistant ceramic, cermet and metallic materials, corrosion-resistant polymers have been developed [
22]. Polymer materials are promising for a broad range of applications as the properties of the polymer matrices can be significantly improved by the modifying additives [
23,
24,
25,
26]. As emphasized in [
23], such materials “have high fracture toughness, light weight, superior strength to weight ratio, high tensile properties, high fatigue resistance, and improved corrosion resistance to severe environments”. However, polymers have much lower melting and decomposition temperatures and cannot compete with chromium carbide coatings operating at high temperatures.
Thus, the conducted research has shown that, by the detonation spraying of a Cr3C2 powder, it is possible to develop composite coatings, the phase and elemental composition of which differ significantly from the initial composition of the feedstock powder. Coatings produced by the detonation spraying of Cr3C2 powders may be useful for increasing the corrosion resistance of machine parts to mineral acids and high-temperature oxidation resistance. Further studies should focus on evaluating the coating performance under these conditions.