Reduction of Enteric Methane Emissions in Heifers Fed Tropical Grass-Based Rations Supplemented with Palm Oil
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Heifers, Experimental Design, and Dietary Treatments
2.2. Data Collection and Chemical Analyses of Feeds
2.3. Apparent Total-Tract Digestibility
2.4. In Situ Degradation
2.5. Rumen Fermentation Parameters
2.6. Enteric Methane Measurement
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Diet Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Palm Oil
3.2. In Vivo Experiment
Feed Intake and Apparent Digestibility
3.3. In Situ Study
3.4. Rumen Fermentation Parameters
3.5. Enteric Methane Emissions
4. Discussion
4.1. Diet Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Palm Oil
4.2. In Vivo Experiment
Feed Intake and Apparent Digestibility
4.3. In Situ Study
4.4. Rumen Fermentation Parameters
4.5. Methane Emissions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Item | Treatments | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
CON | 20 | 40 | 60 | |
Ingredients (g/kg DM) | ||||
Megathyrsus maximus cv Mombasa | 700 | 700 | 700 | 700 |
Ground corn | 190 | 170 | 150 | 130 |
Soybean meal | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 |
Palm oil | 0 | 20 | 40 | 60 |
Urea | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
Minerals 1 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
Item | Treatments | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
CON | 20 | 40 | 60 | |
Chemical composition (g/kg DM) | ||||
Dry Matter (DM) | 937 ± 0.50 | 946 ± 0.50 | 946 ± 0.50 | 946 ± 0.96 |
Organic Matter (OM) | 928 ± 2.06 | 935 ± 2.38 | 930 ± 1.15 | 933 ± 1.50 |
Crude Protein (CP) | 109 ± 1.00 | 104 ± 1.50 | 104 ±1.26 | 103 ± 2.01 |
Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) | 588 ± 0.58 | 588 ± 9.98 | 586 ± 7.44 | 585 ± 9.90 |
Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) | 374 ± 1.73 | 378 ± 1.73 | 376 ± 5.26 | 377 ± 7.94 |
Starch | 216 ± 3.10 | 207 ± 7.54 | 185 ± 6.38 | 170 ± 11.6 |
Crude Ash (CA) | 71.8 ± 2.01 | 65.7 ± 2.04 | 70.2 ± 1.05 | 67.4 ± 1.54 |
Ether Extract (EE) | 16.5 ± 1.53 | 35.7 ± 1.41 | 54.9 ± 1.73 | 74.2 ± 1.31 |
Non-Fibrous Carbohydrates (NFC) 1 | 248 ± 3.60 | 239 ± 6.70 | 218 ± 6.02 | 203 ± 10.8 |
NDF/NFC | 2.37 ± 0.03 | 2.46 ± 0.11 | 2.70 ± 0.10 | 2.90 ± 0.21 |
Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) 2 | 598 ± 2.50 | 627 ± 2.16 | 646 ± 3.30 | 672 ± 2.22 |
Gross Energy (MJ/kg DM) | 15.7 ± 0.21 | 16.5 ± 0.18 | 16.9 ± 0.28 | 17.6 ± 0.20 |
Digestible Energy (MJ/kg DM) | 11.0 ± 0.05 | 11.6 ± 0.06 | 11.9 ± 0.08 | 12.4 ± 0.01 |
Metabolizable Energy (MJ/kg DM) 3 | 10.3 ± 0.08 | 10.8 ± 0.05 | 11.2 ± 0.06 | 11.6 ± 0.05 |
Fatty Acids in Palm Oil | Fatty Acids Group | RT | Peak Area (FAME) | % Fat (of Total Fat) |
---|---|---|---|---|
C12:0–Lauric acid | SAFA | 11.8 | 37.6 | 0.19 |
C14:0–Myristic acid | SAFA | 13.3 | 198 | 1.02 |
C16:0–Palmitic acid | SAFA | 15.7 | 8574 | 44.1 |
C16:1–Palmitoleic acid | MUFA | 16.3 | 27.7 | 0.14 |
C18:0–Stearic acid | SAFA | 18.7 | 1001 | 5.15 |
C18:1 (n−9)–Oleic acid | MUFA/ω9FA | 19.7 | 7372 | 37.94 |
C18:2 trans-(n−6)–Linolelaidic acid | TFA | 19.8 | 143 | 0.73 |
C18:2 (n−6)–Linoleic acid | PUFA | 21.0 | 1963 | 10.1 |
C18:3 (n−6)–g-Linolenic acid | PUFA/ω6FA | 22.8 | 63.7 | 0.33 |
C21:0–Heneicosanoic acid | SAFA | 23.7 | 24.2 | 0.12 |
C22:1–(n−9)–Erucic acid | MUFA/ω9FA | 27.4 | 12.7 | 0.07 |
C24:0–Lignoceric acid | SAFA | 32.8 | 15.6 | 0.08 |
Monounsaturated Fats | MUFA | − | − | 38.15 |
Polyunsaturated Fats | PUFA | − | − | 11.16 |
Total Unsaturated Fats | TUFA | − | − | 49.39 |
Items | Treatments | SE | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CON | 20 | 40 | 60 | |||
LW (kg) | 349 ± 19.9 | 350 ± 23.0 | 348 ± 21.7 | 347 ± 2.50 | 6.534 | 0.491 |
ADG (g/d) | 545 ± 158 | 597 ± 146 | 549 ± 34.9 | 588 ± 132 | 56.40 | 0.478 |
Intake | ||||||
DM (kg/d) | 7.80 ± 0.38 | 8.18 ± 0.63 | 8.02 ± 0.71 | 7.80 ± 0.31 | 0.254 | 0.132 |
OM (kg/d) | 7.24 ± 0.36 | 7.64 ± 0.57 | 7.46 ± 0.68 | 7.28 ± 0.30 | 0.237 | 0.096 |
CP (g/d) | 846 ± 42.1 ab | 852 ± 60.2 a | 832 ± 82.6 ab | 804 ± 40.7 b | 26.39 | 0.040 |
NDF (kg/d) | 4.58 ± 0.22 | 4.80 ± 0.34 | 4.70 ± 0.36 | 4.57 ± 0.23 | 0.143 | 0.096 |
ADF (kg/d) | 2.90 ± 0.14 | 3.09 ± 0.24 | 3.01 ± 0.26 | 2.94 ± 0.18 | 0.102 | 0.057 |
Starch (kg/d) | 1.69 ± 0.08 a | 1.70 ± 0.13 a | 1.54 ± 0.23 a | 1.33 ± 0.05 b | 0.067 | 0.002 |
NFC (kg/d) | 2.24 ± 0.11 | 2.37 ± 0.23 | 2.32 ± 0.26 | 2.26 ± 0.09 | 0.087 | 0.276 |
TDN (kg/d) | 4.31 ± 0.28 | 4.62 ± 0.49 | 4.52 ± 0.58 | 4.38 ± 0.22 | 0.197 | 0.149 |
EE (g/d) | 12.9 ± 0.58 d | 29.2 ± 2.08 c | 44.0 ± 3.63 b | 57.9 ± 2.14 a | 1.137 | <0.001 |
Apparent nutrient digestibility (g/kg) | ||||||
DM | 631 ± 42.8 | 600 ± 39.5 | 632 ± 28.5 | 642 ± 69.4 | 21.60 | 0.241 |
OM | 643 ± 38.8 | 615 ± 42.0 | 646 ± 26.4 | 655 ± 67.2 | 21.28 | 0.264 |
CP | 750 ± 41.4 | 699 ± 10.0 | 740 ± 16.7 | 760 ± 55.5 | 19.00 | 0.146 |
NDF | 536 ± 45.1 | 506 ± 74.1 | 551 ± 31.9 | 553 ± 105 | 31.91 | 0.499 |
ADF | 715 ± 30.7 | 697 ± 51.3 | 719 ± 25.9 | 718 ± 58.4 | 20.07 | 0.646 |
Starch | 865 ± 15.6 a | 822 ± 17.4 b | 803 ± 17.3 b | 793 ± 39.9 b | 11.12 | 0.001 |
NFC | 842 ± 41.3 | 816 ± 35.7 | 816 ± 29.0 | 823 ± 41.1 | 15.70 | 0.596 |
TDN | 634 ± 40.9 | 609 ± 48.8 | 645 ± 29.2 | 652 ± 66.0 | 21.19 | 0.126 |
EE | 998 ± 2.00 | 999 ± 0.58 | 1000 ± 0 | 1000 ± 0 | 0.493 | 0.082 |
Energy intake (MJ/d) | ||||||
GE | 123 ± 6.88 b | 135 ± 9.84 a | 135 ± 13.1 a | 137 ± 4.04 a | 4.227 | 0.001 |
DE | 79.5 ± 5.16 | 85.2 ± 9.06 | 83.4 ± 10.5 | 80.7 ± 4.03 | 3.630 | 0.149 |
Item | Treatments | SEM | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CON | 20 | 40 | 60 | |||
a (%) | 21.7 ± 4.66 | 19.9 ± 4.47 | 20.2 ± 4.49 | 19.7 ± 4.43 | 0.666 | 0.199 |
b (%) | 42.8 ± 6.54 | 44.4 ± 6.67 | 45.8 ± 6.77 | 44.6 ± 6.68 | 1.842 | 0.572 |
kd (h−1) | 0.044 ± 0.21 | 0.030 ± 0.17 | 0.025 ± 0.15 | 0.025 ± 0.15 | 0.004 | 0.113 |
PD (%) | 64.5 ± 8.03 | 64.4 ± 8.02 | 66.0 ± 8.12 | 64.2 ± 8.01 | 2.215 | 0.795 |
ERD (%) | 42.2 ± 6.49 a | 36.0 ± 6.00 b | 34.4 ± 5.86 b | 33.5 ± 5.79 b | 0.372 | 0.001 |
Item | Level of Incorporation of Palm Oil in the Ration (% DM) | SEM | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CON | 20 | 40 | 60 | |||
Rumen pH | 6.43 ± 0.05 | 6.35 ± 0.17 | 6.33 ± 0.17 | 6.25 ± 0.19 | 0.067 | 0.401 |
Acetic acid (%) | 50.8 ± 1.00 | 50.9 ± 0.71 | 50.5 ± 0.77 | 52.1 ± 0.83 | 0.424 | 0.061 |
Propionic acid (%) | 24.4 ± 0.36 ab | 23.4 ± 1.16 b | 25.1 ± 1.36 ab | 26.4 ± 1.64 a | 0.440 | 0.014 |
Butyric acid (%) | 17.4 ± 0.70 a | 18.2 ± 0.42 a | 17.0 ± 1.20 ab | 14.9 ± 1.99 b | 0.482 | 0.012 |
Isobutyric acid (%) | 2.10 ± 0.16 ab | 2.28 ± 0.15 a | 1.98 ± 0.15 ab | 1.85 ± 0.06 b | 0.069 | 0.022 |
Isovaleric acid (%) | 3.30 ± 0.64 | 3.38 ± 0.42 | 3.23 ± 0.12 | 3.03 ± 0.38 | 0.198 | 0.630 |
Valeric acid (%) | 2.08 ± 0.47 | 1.98 ± 0.28 | 2.15 ± 0.23 | 1.85 ± 0.23 | 0.112 | 0.346 |
Acetic:propionic ratio | 2.08 ± 0.05 ab | 2.18 ± 0.13 a | 2.00 ± 0.14 ab | 1.98 ± 0.10 b | 0.040 | 0.034 |
Items | Treatments | SEM | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | |||
CH4 (g)/d | 154 ± 7.18 a | 138 ± 12.2 b | 128 ± 5.20 b | 129 ± 1.26 b | 3.318 | 0.001 |
CH4 (g)/DMI (kg | 19.3 ± 0.50 a | 17.5 ± 1.29 ab | 16.3 ± 0.50 a | 16.0 ± 0.82 a | 0.402 | 0.003 |
CH4 (g)/DOMI (kg) | 30.8 ± 2.23 a | 28.0 ± 1.40 ab | 24.8 ± 1.86 b | 25.8 ± 3.71 b | 1.246 | 0.004 |
CH4 (g)/DNDF (kg) | 62.1 ± 5.84 | 57.7 ± 10.3 | 48.5 ± 2.84 | 52.5 ± 13.9 | 4.414 | 0.075 |
CH4 (kg)/ADG (kg)/year | 0.30 ± 0.06 a | 0.24 ± 0.05 b | 0.23 ± 0.02 b | 0.23 ± 0.05 b | 0.022 | 0.013 |
Ym (%) | 6.61 ± 0.54 a | 5.56 ± 0.28 b | 5.20 ± 0.43 b | 5.23 ± 0.29 b | 0.163 | 0.003 |
Energy loss as CH4 (% GE) | 8.57 ± 0.41 a | 7.67 ± 0.67 b | 7.08 ± 0.28 b | 7.17 ± 0.08 b | 0.183 | 0.001 |
EF (kg/year) | 56.2 ± 2.69 a | 50.3 ± 4.37 b | 46.5 ± 1.86 b | 47.0 ± 0.53 b | 1.183 | 0.001 |
kg eq CO2 /year | 1574 ± 75.3 a | 1408 ± 123 b | 1301 ± 52.1 b | 1317 ± 15.0 b | 33.55 | 0.001 |
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Flores-Santiago, E.d.J.; González-Garduño, R.; Vaquera-Huerta, H.; Calzada-Marín, J.M.; Cadena-Villegas, S.; Arceo-Castillo, J.I.; Vázquez-Mendoza, P.; Ku-Vera, J.C. Reduction of Enteric Methane Emissions in Heifers Fed Tropical Grass-Based Rations Supplemented with Palm Oil. Fermentation 2022, 8, 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8080349
Flores-Santiago EdJ, González-Garduño R, Vaquera-Huerta H, Calzada-Marín JM, Cadena-Villegas S, Arceo-Castillo JI, Vázquez-Mendoza P, Ku-Vera JC. Reduction of Enteric Methane Emissions in Heifers Fed Tropical Grass-Based Rations Supplemented with Palm Oil. Fermentation. 2022; 8(8):349. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8080349
Chicago/Turabian StyleFlores-Santiago, Ever del Jesus, Roberto González-Garduño, Humberto Vaquera-Huerta, Jesús Miguel Calzada-Marín, Said Cadena-Villegas, Jeyder I. Arceo-Castillo, Paulina Vázquez-Mendoza, and Juan C. Ku-Vera. 2022. "Reduction of Enteric Methane Emissions in Heifers Fed Tropical Grass-Based Rations Supplemented with Palm Oil" Fermentation 8, no. 8: 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8080349