Total Environmental Impact of Three Main Dietary Patterns in Relation to the Content of Animal and Plant Food
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Life Cycle Assessment
- systematically estimate the complete environmental consequences and analyze all the energetic and material exchanges occurring in the environment, and
- quantify the various emissions into air, water and land in every life cycle phase, and
- detect any significant change in the environmental effects in an objective way, and
- estimate the effects of material consumptions and environmental emissions on the health of human beings and on the ecosystem as related to food production.
2.1.1. Goal and Scoping
2.1.2. Life Cycle Inventory
2.1.3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
- selection of impact categories (environmental effects) and of the environmental indicators representing them;
- attribution of the results of inventory analysis to the selected impact categories (classification), according to the effects they exert or may exert on the environment.
Ecoindicator99
- damages to human health (substances which have a negative impact on respiration, organic and inorganic compounds, carcinogenesis, climate change and ozone, ionizing radiations);
- damages to ecosystems quality (ecotoxicity, acidification and eutrophication);
- damages to resources (use of primary resources—land and water—and of fuel).
Ecopoint
EDIP
2.1.4. Life Cycle Interpretation
2.2. Diets
2.2.1. “Whole Diet” Study
2.2.2. “Delta” Study
- the “fruits”, “vegetables” and “grains” groups;
- the total amounts of nuts, seeds, soy products listed in the OMN patterns;
- the total amount of oils listed in the VEG patterns.
2.3. Sensitivity
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. “Whole Diet” Study
Pattern/kcal | VEG 1600 | VEG 2400 | VEG 3200 | LOV 1600 | LOV 2400 | LOV 3200 | OMN 1600 | OMN 2400 | OMN 3200 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ecoindicator99 | |||||||||
Total | 0.64800481 | 0.94997163 | 1.3071604 | 2.3859409 | 2.6923735 | 3.0492296 | 3.7122608 | 4.40574 | 4.9341334 |
Carcinogens | 0.00019843 | 0.000286384 | 0.00036383 | 0.00133281 | 0.00142583 | 0.00150253 | 0.001630978 | 0.00180755 | 0.001925124 |
Respiratory organics | 0.00018305 | 0.000251572 | 0.0003258 | 0.00030875 | 0.00037811 | 0.00045206 | 0.000417358 | 0.000518085 | 0.000606523 |
Respiratory inorganics | 0.10049695 | 0.14412463 | 0.18855662 | 0.17767523 | 0.22237083 | 0.26670832 | 0.28722378 | 0.36469605 | 0.42409415 |
Climate change | 0.03919139 | 0.055214859 | 0.0709742 | 0.13229725 | 0.14852923 | 0.16416739 | 0.17863998 | 0.20869219 | 0.23059325 |
Radiation | 0.00002247 | 3.42 × 10−5 | 4.34 × 10−5 | 0.00038047 | 0.00039248 | 0.00040169 | 0.000398937 | 0.000416055 | 0.000427788 |
Ozone layer | 0.00001066 | 1.47 × 10−5 | 1.90 × 10−5 | 3.40 × 10−5 | 3.85 × 10−5 | 4.27 × 10−5 | 5.57 × 10−5 | 6.64 × 10−5 | 7.36 × 10−5 |
Ecotoxicity | 0.00106054 | 0.001434384 | 0.00171095 | 0.0026162 | 0.00302211 | 0.00329787 | 0.003002629 | 0.003519975 | 0.003860926 |
Acidification/Eutrophication | 0.02526500 | 0.036874031 | 0.04925412 | 0.04261296 | 0.05475953 | 0.0671279 | 0.090794324 | 0.11735622 | 0.13629427 |
Land and water use | 0.29042511 | 0.43349405 | 0.63636379 | 1.0764882 | 1.2228196 | 1.4256888 | 2.117066 | 2.5657137 | 2.9009677 |
Minerals | 0.00006435 | 9.65× 10−5 | 0.00012433 | 0.00053008 | 0.00056272 | 0.00059049 | 0.000579085 | 0.00062538 | 0.000659985 |
Fossil fuels | 0.19108686 | 0.27814636 | 0.35942432 | 0.95166495 | 1.0380746 | 1.1192498 | 1.0324519 | 1.1423284 | 1.2346302 |
Ecopoint | |||||||||
Total | 6962.153 | 9977.3835 | 13418.176 | 13599.654 | 16700.341 | 20134.632 | 26697.481 | 33726.743 | 38929.907 |
NOx | 1190.3383 | 1687.0413 | 2174.7931 | 2741.075 | 3239.3288 | 3725.3904 | 3351.1462 | 4029.0262 | 4599.7719 |
SOx | 769.90348 | 1087.0439 | 1383.1478 | 1016.3942 | 1333.0982 | 1628.8733 | 1078.1917 | 1416.3569 | 1723.7377 |
NMVOC | 139.32288 | 192.98861 | 253.43336 | 273.88218 | 328.37026 | 388.55252 | 350.76288 | 427.2963 | 497.94655 |
NH3 | 842.99251 | 1250.5947 | 1703.2695 | 1192.126 | 1627.3129 | 2079.9873 | 3490.5891 | 4614.2057 | 5379.5064 |
Dust PM10 | 9.0847823 | 12.923818 | 15.191499 | 65.534052 | 69.802741 | 72.053644 | 72.707679 | 79.03103 | 82.418179 |
CO2 | 1377.9895 | 1943.5007 | 2498.664 | 4725.9375 | 5298.3987 | 5849.4224 | 6340.5217 | 7394.1754 | 8163.2418 |
Ozone layer | 0.6610465 | 0.90966159 | 1.1767778 | 2.1511266 | 2.4272521 | 2.689679 | 3.4930708 | 4.1519191 | 4.5977102 |
Pb (air) | 0.32147787 | 0.47727671 | 0.60871325 | 1.5374657 | 1.702998 | 1.833917 | 2.0107655 | 2.3081678 | 2.5067236 |
Cd (air) | 1.5009171 | 2.1788895 | 2.7819723 | 9.748633 | 10.451046 | 11.049965 | 11.405062 | 12.571727 | 13.398671 |
Zn (air) | 0.34491482 | 0.51571004 | 0.66441941 | 1.0479235 | 1.2308866 | 1.3790125 | 1.6420776 | 1.9914576 | 2.2250812 |
Hg (air) | 1.1709015 | 1.7566871 | 2.2428252 | 11.655909 | 12.243954 | 12.729547 | 12.321511 | 13.092723 | 13.669511 |
COD | 4.5777467 | 6.6868027 | 8.6133306 | 25.25851 | 27.433316 | 29.349171 | 30.326905 | 33.929372 | 36.545081 |
P | 466.47307 | 688.61262 | 932.40825 | 605.62586 | 831.28441 | 1075.0789 | 1216.5565 | 1613.6763 | 1938.9971 |
N | 2080.5034 | 2992.2043 | 4299.9698 | 2621.3589 | 3578.1404 | 4885.9003 | 10,403.361 | 13,712.094 | 16,063.676 |
Cr (water) | 0.18439044 | 0.27280425 | 0.34372097 | 1.9087695 | 2.0000171 | 2.0706068 | 2.1334244 | 2.2856304 | 2.3864404 |
Zn (water) | 0.11026105 | 0.16221025 | 0.20594354 | 0.94313822 | 0.99673879 | 1.0402484 | 1.0679982 | 1.1560351 | 1.2165352 |
Cu (water) | 0.15052732 | 0.22462302 | 0.28297967 | 1.7211955 | 1.7973628 | 1.855504 | 1.9056096 | 2.0314536 | 2.1143221 |
Cd (water) | 0.18614116 | 0.27169122 | 0.35127599 | 0.55325881 | 0.64589623 | 0.72481966 | 0.91269133 | 1.1064944 | 1.2360639 |
Hg (water) | 0.7057345 | 1.0552604 | 1.3499184 | 5.9398762 | 6.286672 | 6.5811908 | 6.2440261 | 6.6747297 | 7.0105413 |
Pb (water) | 0.0305093 | 0.045206483 | 0.05642818 | 0.30565965 | 0.32090765 | 0.33209206 | 0.33619951 | 0.35977884 | 0.37519415 |
Ni (water) | 0.02068235 | 0.030679134 | 0.03847235 | 0.23622184 | 0.24660089 | 0.25435586 | 0.26447911 | 0.28248352 | 0.29403315 |
AOX (water) | 0.00530489 | 0.007279036 | 0.00937398 | 0.01604704 | 0.01823847 | 0.02029386 | 0.027071622 | 0.032408888 | 0.03596629 |
Metals (soil) | 0.21573554 | 0.31068211 | 0.39921194 | 1.1959458 | 1.2942133 | 1.382073 | 1.433325 | 1.5988108 | 1.7190422 |
Pesticide (soil) | 15.523208 | 20.69761 | 25.872013 | 15.523208 | 20.69761 | 25.872013 | 15.523208 | 20.69761 | 25.872013 |
Energy | 59.835651 | 86.870388 | 112.30158 | 277.97726 | 304.81086 | 330.2091 | 302.59665 | 336.61044 | 365.40786 |
EDIP | |||||||||
Total | 0.013394846 | 0.018757951 | 0.02442873 | 0.03742483 | 0.0429144 | 0.04856047 | 0.049088143 | 0.057968728 | 0.065202436 |
Global warming (GWP 100) | 0.001047775 | 0.001477754 | 0.00189988 | 0.00359432 | 0.0040296 | 0.00444857 | 0.004823125 | 0.005624618 | 0.006209534 |
Acidification | 0.000544453 | 0.000788231 | 0.00104088 | 0.00087095 | 0.00112338 | 0.00137577 | 0.001664129 | 0.002154371 | 0.002515469 |
Eutrophication | 0.003267925 | 0.004453371 | 0.00574918 | 0.00361988 | 0.00482479 | 0.00611978 | 0.006304814 | 0.008318734 | 0.00997571 |
Photochemical smog | 0.000170838 | 0.000235238 | 0.0003047 | 0.0003023 | 0.0003675 | 0.0004367 | 0.000415924 | 0.00051399 | 0.000598279 |
Ecotoxicity water chronic | 0.001493251 | 0.002078688 | 0.00284514 | 0.00456145 | 0.00519663 | 0.00595413 | 0.007208578 | 0.008596149 | 0.009714592 |
Ecotoxicity water acute | 0.001243991 | 0.001714344 | 0.0022113 | 0.00420647 | 0.0047279 | 0.00521615 | 0.006717897 | 0.00795496 | 0.008786304 |
Ecotoxicity soil chronic | 0.002577418 | 0.003584406 | 0.00468446 | 0.00595102 | 0.00695597 | 0.0080556 | 0.006466586 | 0.00761594 | 0.00878632 |
Human toxicity air | 0.000509268 | 0.000720343 | 0.00092095 | 0.00152606 | 0.00173505 | 0.00193547 | 0.001620564 | 0.001857016 | 0.002070554 |
Human toxicity water | 7.44 × 10−5 | 0.000110764 | 0.00014493 | 0.00061465 | 0.00065113 | 0.00068526 | 0.000657524 | 0.000705894 | 0.00074591 |
Human toxicity soil | 0.002465551 | 0.003594811 | 0.00462731 | 0.01217773 | 0.01330246 | 0.01433303 | 0.013209003 | 0.014627056 | 0.015799764 |
3.2. “Delta” Study
Pattern | VEG Delta | LOV Delta | OMN Delta |
---|---|---|---|
Ecoindicator99 | |||
Total | 0.21163256 | 1.9540345 | 3.6643576 |
Carcinogens | 8.05 × 10−5 | 0.001219979 | 0.001596435 |
Respiratory Organics | 4.01 × 10−5 | 0.000166618 | 0.000305573 |
Respiratory Inorganics | 0.021479271 | 0.09972547 | 0.24028832 |
Climate change | 0.011307043 | 0.10462142 | 0.16357382 |
Radiation | 4.92 × 10−5 | 0.000363216 | 0.000386427 |
Ozone layer | 7.65 × 10−5 | 3.15 × 10−5 | 5.91 × 10−5 |
Ecotoxicity | 0.00015814 | 0.001745867 | 0.002227464 |
Acidification/Eutrophication | 0.005841891 | 0.023727391 | 0.08568815 |
Land and water use | 0.14422255 | 0.93354814 | 2.2793129 |
Minerals | 1.37 × 10−5 | 0.000479934 | 0.000541406 |
Fossil fuels | 0.028476768 | 0.78840499 | 0.89037801 |
Ecopoint | |||
Total | 1966.647 | 8736.5711 | 25,386.999 |
NOx | 244.3271 | 1792.9067 | 2564.5648 |
SOx | 100.58787 | 345.87779 | 424.46498 |
NMVOC | 40.724424 | 175.43345 | 272.92316 |
NH3 | 210.51048 | 584.99251 | 3527.0838 |
Dust PM10 | 2.9942366 | 59.304326 | 68.263183 |
CO2 | 398.16059 | 3813.7786 | 5905.1117 |
Ozone layer | 0.46604541 | 1.9578271 | 3.640162 |
Pb (air) | 0.08821719 | 1.3213139 | 1.9105317 |
Cd (air) | 0.53593394 | 8.5764778 | 10.615507 |
Zn (air) | 0.092202355 | 0.8064707 | 1.5367188 |
Hg (air) | 0.17861332 | 10.371796 | 11.187239 |
COD | 1.3626347 | 22.224598 | 28.637096 |
P | 107.57917 | 249.26705 | 1025.8589 |
N | 849.72417 | 1431.9097 | 11270.471 |
Cr (water) | 0.045675248 | 1.7736143 | 2.0564881 |
Zn (water) | 0.029915182 | 0.85359468 | 1.0089572 |
Cu (water) | 0.032329539 | 1.5634239 | 1.7889283 |
Cd (water) | 0.07970724 | 0.46663514 | 0.92955853 |
Hg (water) | 0.081921167 | 5.3177828 | 5.7018097 |
Pb (water) | 0.006726089 | 0.28355506 | 0.32204421 |
Ni (water) | 0.00528008 | 0.22105271 | 0.25655257 |
AOX (water) | 0.003837047 | 0.014917741 | 0.029135601 |
Metals (soil) | 0.078326533 | 1.0618578 | 1.3636445 |
Energy | 8.9515701 | 226.28606 | 257.2731 |
EDIP | |||
Total | 0.003713746 | 0.027870192 | 0.042734028 |
Global warming (GWP 100) | 0.000297634 | 0.002849477 | 0.004412835 |
Acidification | 0.000112545 | 0.000447691 | 0.001467579 |
Eutrophication | 0.000333923 | 0.000705344 | 0.004129094 |
Photochemical smog | 3.79 × 10−5 | 0.000170155 | 0.000315601 |
Ecotoxicity water chronic | 0.001190023 | 0.004307961 | 0.00768123 |
Ecotoxicity water acute | 0.000872404 | 0.003885964 | 0.007087624 |
Ecotoxicity soil chronic | 0.000396519 | 0.003768079 | 0.004424933 |
Human toxicity air | 4.81 × 10−5 | 0.001062836 | 0.00118261 |
Human toxicity water | 1.70 × 10−5 | 0.000557353 | 0.000611296 |
Human toxicity soil | 0.000407688 | 0.010115332 | 0.011421227 |
3.3. “Whole Diet” Study vs. “Delta” Study
3.4. Distribution of the Sources of Relative Impact within the Dietary Patterns
3.4.1. Ecoindicator99
3.4.2. Ecopoint
3.4.3. EDIP
3.5. Absolute Values of the Impacts in the Different Dietary Patterns
3.6. Subcategories of Impact
Pattern | VEG | LOV | OM | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kcal | 1600 | 2400 | 3200 | 1600 | 2400 | 3200 | 1600 | 2400 | 3200 |
Ecoindicator99 | |||||||||
TOTAL single score | 0.64800 | 0.94997 | 1.30716 | 2.38594 | 2.69237 | 3.04923 | 3.71226 | 4.40574 | 4.93413 |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 573% | 464% | 377% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 156% | 164% | 162% |
versus OMN | 17% | 22% | 26% | 64% | 61% | 62% | - | - | - |
Land and water use subscore | 0.29043 | 0.43349 | 0.63636 | 1.07649 | 1.22282 | 1.42569 | 2.11707 | 2.56571 | 2.90097 |
versus TOTAL | 45% | 46% | 49% | 45% | 45% | 47% | 57% | 58% | 59% |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 729% | 592% | 456% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 197% | 210% | 203% |
versus OMN | 14% | 17% | 22% | 51% | 48% | 49% | - | - | - |
Climate change subscore | 0.03919 | 0.05521 | 0.07097 | 0.13230 | 0.14853 | 0.16417 | 0.17864 | 0.20869 | 0.23059 |
versus TOTAL | 6% | 6% | 5% | 6% | 6% | 5% | 5% | 5% | 5% |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 456% | 378% | 325% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 135% | 141% | 140% |
versus OMN | 22% | 26% | 31% | 74% | 71% | 71% | - | - | - |
Ecopoint | |||||||||
TOTAL single score | 6962.1 | 9977.3 | 13,418.1 | 13,599.6 | 16,700.3 | 20,134.6 | 26,697.4 | 33,726.7 | 38,929.9 |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 383% | 338% | 290% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 196% | 202% | 193% |
versus OMN | 26% | 30% | 34% | 51% | 50% | 52% | - | - | - |
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) subscore | 2707.6 | 3823.5 | 4926.8 | 7740.8 | 8866.0 | 9963.3 | 10,042.4 | 11,850.4 | 13,260.9 |
versus TOTAL | 39% | 38% | 37% | 57% | 53% | 49% | 38% | 35% | 34% |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 371% | 310% | 269% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 130% | 134% | 133% |
versus OMN | 27% | 32% | 37% | 77% | 75% | 75% | - | - | - |
EDIP | |||||||||
TOTAL single score | 0.01339 | 0.01876 | 0.02443 | 0.03742 | 0.04291 | 0.04856 | 0.04909 | 0.05797 | 0.06520 |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 366% | 309% | 267% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 131% | 135% | 134% |
versus OMN | 27% | 32% | 37% | 76% | 74% | 74% | - | - | - |
Global warming (GWP 100) subscore | 0.00105 | 0.00148 | 0.00190 | 0.00359 | 0.00403 | 0.00445 | 0.00482 | 0.00562 | 0.00621 |
versus TOTAL | 8% | 8% | 8% | 10% | 9% | 9% | 10% | 10% | 10% |
versus VEG | - | - | - | - | - | - | 460% | 381% | 327% |
versus LOV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 134% | 140% | 140% |
versus OMN | 22% | 26% | 31% | 75% | 72% | 72% | - | - | - |
Pattern | VEG | LOV | OMN |
---|---|---|---|
Ecoindicator99 | |||
TOTAL single score | 0.21163 | 1.95403 | 3.66436 |
versus VEG | - | - | 1731% |
versus LOV | - | - | 188% |
versus OMN | 6% | 53% | - |
Land and water use subscore | 0.14422 | 0.93355 | 2.27931 |
versus TOTAL | 68% | 48% | 62% |
versus VEG | - | - | 1580% |
versus LOV | - | - | 244% |
versus OMN | 6% | 41% | - |
Climate change subscore | 0.01131 | 0.10462 | 0.16357 |
versus TOTAL | 5% | 5% | 4% |
versus VEG | - | - | 1447% |
versus LOV | - | - | 156% |
versus OMN | 7% | 64% | - |
Ecopoint | |||
TOTAL single score | 1966.6 | 8736.5 | 25,386.9 |
versus VEG | - | - | 1291% |
versus LOV | - | - | 291% |
versus OMN | 8% | 34% | - |
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) subscore | 683.2 | 5782.1 | 8742.5 |
versus TOTAL | 35% | 66% | 34% |
versus VEG | - | - | 1280% |
versus LOV | - | - | 151% |
versus OMN | 8% | 66% | - |
EDIP | |||
TOTAL single score | 0.00371 | 0.02787 | 0.04273 |
versus VEG | - | - | 1151% |
versus LOV | - | - | 153% |
versus OMN | 9% | 65% | - |
Global warming (GWP 100) subscore | 0.00030 | 0.00285 | 0.00441 |
versus TOTAL | 8% | 10% | 10% |
versus VEG | - | - | 1483% |
versus LOV | - | - | 155% |
versus OMN | 7% | 65% | - |
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baroni, L.; Berati, M.; Candilera, M.; Tettamanti, M. Total Environmental Impact of Three Main Dietary Patterns in Relation to the Content of Animal and Plant Food. Foods 2014, 3, 443-460. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods3030443
Baroni L, Berati M, Candilera M, Tettamanti M. Total Environmental Impact of Three Main Dietary Patterns in Relation to the Content of Animal and Plant Food. Foods. 2014; 3(3):443-460. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods3030443
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaroni, Luciana, Marina Berati, Maurizio Candilera, and Massimo Tettamanti. 2014. "Total Environmental Impact of Three Main Dietary Patterns in Relation to the Content of Animal and Plant Food" Foods 3, no. 3: 443-460. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods3030443