Next Article in Journal
The Effect of Co-Fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum HLJ29L2 and Yeast on Wheat Protein Characteristics in Sourdough and Crackers
Next Article in Special Issue
Did the Addition of Olive Cakes Obtained by Different Methods of Oil Extraction in the Finishing Diet of Bísaro Pigs Affect the Volatile Compounds and Sensory Characteristics of Dry-Cured Loin and “Cachaço”?
Previous Article in Journal
Alginate Coating Charged by Hydroxyapatite Complexes with Lactoferrin and Quercetin Enhances the Pork Meat Shelf Life
Previous Article in Special Issue
Long-Term Dietary Supplementation with Betaine Improves Growth Performance, Meat Quality and Intramuscular Fat Deposition in Growing-Finishing Pigs
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Foods
Volume 12
Issue 3
10.3390/foods12030554
foods-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Characterization of Growth Performance, Pork Quality, and Body Composition in Mangalica Pigs

by
Morgan M. Roberts
,
Stephanie D. Perkins
,
Brian L. Anderson
,
Jason T. Sawyer
and
Terry D. Brandebourg
*
Department of Animal Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2023, 12(3), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030554
Submission received: 26 December 2022 / Revised: 21 January 2023 / Accepted: 23 January 2023 / Published: 26 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving the Meat and Meat Products Quality of Rare Pork Breeds and Genetic Types)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
European heritage breeds, such as the Blonde (B), Red (R), and Swallow-bellied (SB) Mangalica pig, display an extreme propensity to fatten and are reputed to produce superior quality pork. This suggests that Mangalica pork should command a higher price, and the Mangalica is a candidate breed to target niche markets within the United States. Our objectives were to test this hypothesis by (1) directly comparing growth performance and carcass merit of purebred Yorkshire (Y), B, R, and SB Mangalica pigs to identify the best breed for adoption, and (2) comparing indices of pork quality in purebred R, Y, and crossbred (R × Y) pigs to determine if crossbreeding represented a viable alternative to the adoption of purebred Mangalica. Daily feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), and feed efficiency were highest in Y and lowest in SB pigs with B and R ranked intermediately (p < 0.001). Backfat thickness was greatest in B and lowest in Y with R and SB ranked intermediately (p < 0.001). Marbling score was greatest in R pigs and lowest in Y pigs with B and SB ranked intermediately (p < 0.01). In contrast, loin eye area (LEA) was greatest in Y pigs compared to B, R, and SB (p < 0.001). Indices of meat quality were then compared in R, R × Y, and Y pigs. Backfat thickness and marbling scores were greater in R than R × Y and Y pigs (p < 0.001) while LEA was greater in Y than R × Y and R pigs (p < 0.001). Loin and ham ultimate pH, color, and firmness scores were significantly greater in R than R × Y or Y pigs (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, cook loss was significantly less in R than Y pigs (p < 0.007) while Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (WBS) was not different in chops between groups (p < 0.11). These data indicate that though Mangalica exhibit poorer growth performance, Mangalica pork exhibits superior pork quality attributes, suggesting that higher price points for Mangalica pork in niche markets are justified.

1. Introduction

Selection for rapid growth and higher feed efficiency within the United States pork industry has tended to negatively impact important pork quality traits, such as flavor, juiciness, tenderness, color, and water-holding capacity [1,2,3]. This in turn has led to growth in niche markets whereby consumers are willing to pay premium prices for what is perceived as exceptional pork eating experiences. Within U.S. markets, the two most important quality attributes influencing consumer choice at the point of sale are the color and degree of marbling displayed by pork cuts both being associated with enhanced tenderness by consumers [2,4,5,6,7]. Thus, breeds adopted to target U.S. niche markets should produce pork cuts with redder color, superior marbling, and enhanced tenderness while displaying growth performance that does not limit the economic viability of adopting the breed [2,4].
European heritage breeds such as the Mangalica pig appear to display the pork quality characteristics necessary to meet these emerging market opportunities within the U.S. [8,9]. The resurgence of the European Mangalica from near extinction has fostered significant research into this pig both due to its cultural significant and its desirable use as a food animal. The Mangalica encompasses three closely related breeds distinguished by their Blonde (White), Red, and Swallow-bellied (Black with golden underbelly) coat colors with each also displaying apparent differences in their carcass characteristics [8,10]. Originally domesticated to fulfill a need for lard production, the Mangalica is slow growing, displays poor feed efficiency, and produces carcasses that can exhibit as little as 30% lean and as much as 70% fat at typical harvest weights [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. In contrast, the genetically improved Yorkshire pig, a breed closely related to the European Large White, produces carcasses that are approximately 70% lean and only 30% fat while displaying high feed efficiency, rapid lean growth, and high reproductive performance [26,27]. Such phenotypic traits have positioned the Yorkshire as the most popular breed of pig for pork production in the United States though it displays significantly less marbling and often produces paler pork cuts than other breeds [26,27].
The Mangalica’s reputation for producing superior pork appears well founded. Multiple studies that have compared either Blonde or Swallow-bellied Mangalica directly with the Large White indicate that both Blondes and Swallow-bellied Mangalica display higher degrees of marbling and their muscles appear redder than their modern counterparts [20,21,22,23,24]. Interestingly, Mangalica pork contains a higher degree of monounsaturated fatty acids than the Large White, further suggesting that the Mangalica is uniquely positioned as a food animal both in terms of the nutritive quality of its fresh pork and its potential to yield dry cured products with distinctive flavor [22,23,24,28]. Furthermore, crossing purebred Mangalica with European Landrace/Yorkshire sows appears to be a viable strategy to produce pork with desirable sensory attributes [29].
Given that Mangalica pigs display the pork quality characteristics necessary for targeting niche markets, the aims of this study were to (1) directly compare differences in growth performance and body composition between the three Mangalica breeds, and (2) determine if crossbreeding represented a viable alternative to the adoption of purebred Mangalica. These aims were accomplished by performing growth trials in a modern intensive production system typical of the U.S. pork industry to directly compare the growth performance and pork quality attributes of Blonde (B), Red (R), and Swallow-bellied (SB) Mangalica to Yorkshire (Y) pigs. Subsequently, indices of pork quality were furthered compared between R, Y, and Red/Yorkshire (R × Y) crosses. The obtained data will allow pork producers targeting niche markets within the United States to make more knowledgeable decisions concerning breed adoption and breeding strategies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Animals and Design

All experimental procedures were approved by the Auburn University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC; approval number PRN 2011-2001). The Auburn University College of Agriculture is accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AALAC) and this study was conducted in accordance with the Federation of Animal Science Societies’ Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching. Purebred Yorkshire pigs, red, blonde, and swallow-bellied lines of Mangalica pigs were housed individually in 12.2 m2 pens at the Auburn University Swine Research and Education Center (SREC) for the duration of these experiments. In addition, Yorkshire boars were crossbred to red Mangalica sows to yield York × Red crosses. All pigs were fed a typical grower ration (17% CP) from 18 to 54 kg body weight (BW) and a finisher ration (15% CP) from 55 to 110 kg BW. Pigs were provided ad libitum access to water. Daily feed intakes and weekly body weights were recorded during a period spanning growth from 18 kg live weight until reaching harvest weight of 110 kg to facilitate measurement of average daily gain (ADG), feed efficiency (kg gained/kg feed), and total feed intake.

2.2. Carcass Fabrication

Animals were harvested at the Auburn University Lambert-Powell Meats Lab under USDA-FSIS inspection. Hot carcass weight was recorded after harvest, and carcasses were chilled at 2 ± 1 °C for 24 h. At 24 h postmortem, carcass pH was recorded in the left side ham using a pH Spear probe (Oakton Instruments, Vernon Hills, IL, USA). Both live weight and hot carcass weight were recorded to determine dressing percentage. Following the 24 h chill period, carcasses were ribbed between the 10th and 11th rib. Backfat was measured at the 10th and last rib, and loin eye area (LEA) was also measured by trained personnel. Backfat and LEA were adjusted based on the recommended equation of National Pork Producer’s Council (NPPC) [3]. The following equations were used: Adjusted Backfat to 114 kg.= Actual Backfat + [(114-actual wt.) × actual backfat/(actual wt.-114] and Adjusted LEA to 114 kg = Actual LEA + [(114-actual wt.) × actual LEA/(actual wt. + 70)].
Evaluation of subjective scores for marbling, firmness, and muscle score were determined by a trained observer using published visual standards [3]. Additionally, the longissimus muscle at the 10th rib was evaluated for objective color measurements with a Hunter Miniscan XE Plus (Hunter Lab, Reston, VA, USA) to determine Hunter L*, a*, and b* values. The Miniscan was calibrated according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and utilized a D65 light source, a 10° viewing angle, and a 35-mm viewing area. Following carcass evaluation, a section of the longissimus muscle was removed from the 11th rib to the last lumbar vertebrae from each carcass for meat quality analysis.

2.3. Warner-Bratzler Shear Force and Cook Loss

Warner Bratzler shear force (WBS) evaluation was performed using pork loin chops cut to 2.54-cm thickness, thawed at approximately 4 °C for 24 h. Chops were weighed and placed on a Calphalon Removable Plate Grill (Calphalon, Perrysburg, OH, USA) clamshell style contact grill pre-heated to 177 °C. Temperature was monitored with a copper constantan thermocouple wire inserted into the geometric center of the chop and attached to a hand-held Omega data logger HH309A (Omega, Stamford, CT, USA) temperature recorder. Chops were cooked for 7 min to an internal temperature of 71 °C. Cooked chops were removed and reweighed before being placed on non-absorbent wax-coated paper to cool to room temperature. After cooling chops were wrapped in aluminum foil and placed in refrigerator at 4 °C for approximately 24 h. Following refrigeration, six 1.27cmdiameter cores were removed from each chop with a brass cork borer (Model 1601A Series Brass Cork Borer, Boekel Scientific, Feasterville, PA, USA) parallel to the longitudinal orientation of the muscle fibers. Each core was sheared once at its center using a Warner-Bratzler Shear force blade attached to a TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY, USA) with a crosshead speed of 200 mm/min. The peak force measurements were averaged from the six cores of each sample and used for analysis. The probe was programmed to be lowered 30 mm after detection of resistance. The penetration speed was 3.3 mm/s with a post-test speed of 10 mm/s and a pre-test speed of 2.0 mm/s. Peak force of each sample was obtained and expressed in Newtons (N). Cook loss was measured as the percent of pre-cooked weight lost during cooking and calculated as Cook Loss = (Initial weight – Cooked weight) × 100.

2.4. Gene Expression Analysis

Upon exsanguination, subcutaneous adipose tissues were immediately collected, snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80 °C until mRNA analysis. Total RNA was extracted from adipose tissue using a two-step purification protocol with total RNA first being extracted from whole tissue using RNAzol® RT (MRC, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, USA) followed by purification using RNAeasy spin columns (QIAGEN, Inc., Valencia, CA, USA) according to the manufacturers’ recommendations. RNA was quantified using a BioTek Synergy 4 plate reader utilizing the Take3 system (BioTek U.S., Winooski, VT, USA) with all samples exhibiting an OD 260/280 between 1.8 and 2.0 and an OD 260/230 value between 1.8 and 2.2. Spectral scans ranging from 200 to 400 nm further verified sample purity as all RNA samples produced smooth curves exhibiting one peak at 260 nm. Total RNA integrity was accessed both visually by resolving 2 µg of RNA on a denaturing formaldehyde gel containing ethidium bromide and by determining an RNA Integrity Number (RIN) using an Agilent 2100 bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Inc., Clara, CA, USA). All samples demonstrated sharp ribosomal bands with a 28S to 18S ratio greater than 1 and RIN values greater than 7.0 and were thus judged intact and non-degraded. Total RNA was then reverse transcribed using Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Promega Inc, Madison, WI, USA) and oligo-dT primers. Real-time PCR was performed on the resultant cDNA using a Roche Lightcycler® 480 Real-time PCR machine and LightCycler® 480 SYBR Green I Master Mix (Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN, USA) according to manufacturer’s recommendations. All PCR reactions were performed using intron-spanning primers under optimized conditions with primer efficiencies ranging between 90 to 101% as verified with standard curves. Product purity was assessed by melting curve analysis and expected amplicon sizes were verified on a 2% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. Values were normalized to Ribosomal Protein S15 (S15) mRNA expression. The S15 mRNA levels represent an appropriate control as the efficiency of the S15 primers was 100% and S15 mRNA expression was not different between any groups tested (p < 0.93). Data are expressed as fold change relative to baseline and calculated according to Pfaffl, 2010 [30].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Changes in gene expression were calculated from the cycle threshold, after correction using S15 expression and analyzed using the Pair Wise Fixed Reallocation Randomization Test of REST-MCS v2.0 (http://rest.gene-quantification.info/ (accessed on 3 October 2022). Carcass traits and RNA quality data were analyzed as a completely randomized block design using a mixed linear model of SAS v9.2 with individual animal serving as the experimental unit, i.e., individual block (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA).

3. Results

Pigs were randomly assigned to individual pens at 18 kg live weight and allowed ad libitum access to typical growth stage-matched rations until pigs reached approximately 54 kg live weight. Growth performance was monitored throughout this period and body composition compared at harvest for Yorkshire pigs and the three true breeding varieties of Mangalica pigs. As depicted in Figure 1, Mangalica and Yorkshire pigs displayed obvious phenotypic differences with Mangalica representing a lard-type body composition and Yorkshire pigs resembling modern, lean, and muscled pigs. As shown in Table 1, all indices of growth performance and body composition measured were significantly different between Yorkshire and Mangalica pigs. At market weight, Mangalica pigs were significantly fatter, exhibiting both greater backfat at the 10th rib (p < 0.0001) and significantly greater amounts of marbling within the longissimus muscle than Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.01). However, Mangalica pigs developed significantly less muscle mass at matched weights than Yorkshire pigs as estimated by Longissimus dorsi muscle area (LEA) which was greater than twice the size in Yorkshire carcasses compared to the three Mangalica breeds (p < 0.0001). Likewise, muscle score values were consistent with LEA measurements (p < 0.01). These differences in adiposity and muscling were so extreme as to be visually appreciable post-harvest (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Consistent with differences in carcass composition, Yorkshire pigs grew faster as evidenced by higher average daily gains (p < 0.0001) and exhibited superior feed efficiency (p < 0.0001) compared to Mangalica pigs, despite Yorkshires displaying slightly higher voluntary feed intake levels (p < 0.05).
Differences in growth and body composition parameters were also observed between the three Mangalica pig breeds (Table 1). Blonde Mangalica were fatter than their Red and Swallow-bellied counterparts based upon subcutaneous fat thickness (p < 0.05). Interestingly, Red Mangalica exhibited significantly higher degrees of marbling than other Mangalica types (p < 0.05). Swallow-bellied Mangalica exhibited lower average daily gains (p < 0.05) likely due to their lower voluntary intake (p < 0.05) and lower muscling (p < 0.05) compared to their Blonde and Red counterparts.
To determine if the divergent phenotypes were associated with meaningful physiological differences, leptin, and fatty acid synthetase (FAS) mRNA was measured in subcutaneous adipose tissue of market weight Yorkshire and Blonde Mangalica pigs using real-time PCR (Figure 4). Consistent with the obese phenotype of the Mangalica, leptin mRNA expression was 6.8-fold higher and FAS mRNA expression was 9.2-fold higher in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of Mangalica versus Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.01).
Indices of meat quality were compared in Red Mangalica, Red Mangalica × Yorkshire, and Yorkshire pigs, and the data are presented in Table 2. There were no differences in live weight between groups, indicating that differences in carcass parameters were not confounded by slaughter weight (p < 0.98). However, back fat thickness was 1.8-fold and 3.4-fold greater in Red Mangalica than Red Mangalica × Yorkshire and Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.0001). Marbling score was 1.5 and 2.8-fold greater in Red Mangalica than Red Mangalica × Yorkshire and Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.005), and LEA was 1.5-fold and 2.3-fold greater in Yorkshire than Red Mangalica × Yorkshire and Red Mangalica pigs (p < 0.0001). Muscle score displayed the same pattern as LEA (p < 0.05). Firmness scores were highest in Red Mangalica and lowest in Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.03). Loin and ham ultimate pH was significantly greater in Red Mangalica than Red Mangalica × Yorkshire or Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.01) mirroring color (p < 0.005) and firmness scores (p < 0.003). Cook loss was significantly lesser in Red Mangalica than Yorkshire pigs (p < 0.007) while WBS was not different in chops between groups (p < 0.11).

4. Discussion

The Mangalica pig is an interesting heritage breed that was once prized in Hungary for its lard production and superior meat quality [7]. Unlike the modern Yorkshire, which has undergone intense, methodical genetic selection for rapid, lean growth within the U.S., the Mangalica genetics reflect a general lack of selection pressure [15,16,17]. Therefore, Mangalica genetics are best described as remaining primitive or unimproved relative to the breed’s derivation which has served to preserve distinctive carcass quality traits that distinguish their phenotypes from improved meat breeds [31]. There are three breeds of Mangalica pigs that survive today, the Red, Blonde, and Swallow-belly [8,10,15,17]. The Mangalica breed was first established in the 1830s when efforts were undertaken to create a unique lard-type hog which displayed high quality fat [8,15,17]. Initially, the Sumadia pig was crossbred with Hungarian aboriginal breeds, the Alföldi and the Bakony, to create the Blonde and Black Mangalica. The Blonde and Black were then crossbred to form the Swallow-Belly Mangalica. The Blonde was also crossbred with another aboriginal breed, the Szalonta, to generate the Red Mangalica. The Blonde coat color can range from shades of light gray to yellow, while the Swallow-belly is black with a yellow/blonde throat and underbelly. The Red Mangalica is ginger in color with a slightly thinner and slicker hair coat [8]. All three pigs have been prized for their hardiness and high-quality lard though apparent differences in their carcass characteristics persist [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25].
In the current study, Yorkshire pigs exhibited an ADG of 0.97 kg/day, a voluntary feed intake (FI) of 2.71 kg/day and a feed efficiency of 0.357 for the period on test. Expected industry performance for purebred Yorkshire herds in the U.S. over similar growing periods as this trial range between 0.77 and 0.88 kg/day for ADG, 1.95 and 2.5 kg for daily feed intake, and 0.31 and 0.45 for feed efficiency [26,32]. Yorkshire pigs in the current study exhibited tenth rib back fat thickness of 2.34 cm and a LEA of 16.56 cm2 at market weight compared to an industry standard of 2.29 cm backfat and LEA of 15.7 cm2. Thus, Yorkshire pigs in the current study gained faster but also consumed more feed than typical herds while exhibiting similar adiposity and slightly greater muscularity compared to the current U.S. industry standard Yorkshire hog. Such differences could be due to differences in breeding stock, management practices, and differences in breeding programs. Moreover, the swine herd at Auburn University is a naïve, closed herd in terms of health status and is reared within a biosecure facility. The lack of immune stimulation in the current rearing facility compared to dirtier environments typical of industry facilities may in part explain the greater growth and feed intake in these pigs, though overall feed efficiency in this study was typical for Yorkshires [33]. Finally, pigs were individually penned so while they were able to socialize with neighbors, they did not have to contend with a dominance hierarchy concerning feeding. Nonetheless, growth performance exhibited by Yorkshire pigs in the current study was consistent with expected ranges for this breed, indicating the Yorkshire pigs in the current study represent a valid baseline in which to compare the three Mangalica breeds.
Growth performance in the Mangalica pig would be expected to be poorer than that of improved breed based upon the literature addressing this issue. Furthermore, the existing studies often characterize Mangalica herds that were reared in what would be considered traditional, pasture-based systems compared to modern, intensive environments. Nonetheless, a survey of such studies indicates that Mangalica pigs exhibit an ADG of 0.25 kg/day, a daily feed intake of roughly 2.3 kg and a feed efficiency of 0.11 [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. In the current study, all Mangalica breeds studied significantly exceeded those performance standards. This was expected as Mangalica on this trial were given ad libitum access to concentrated, balanced rations formulated to match their stage of growth with the express goal of maximizing their growth rate and potential to fatten. This is in sharp contrast with the nutrition of Mangalica in traditional growing systems in which a significant portion of their diet is met through foraging on pasture and in woodlots. Two studies examined Blonde Mangalica in intensive production systems and reported ADG ranging from 0.3 to 0.45 kg across the grow-finish phases, which approached growth rates observed in the current study [22,23,24]. The disease-free status of the closed herd in the current study may explain why Mangalica in the current study performed better comparatively. Likewise, differences in genetic backgrounds of the herds utilized may contribute to differences observed between studies conducted in Europe and those utilizing pigs imported in the U.S. Nonetheless, while growth performance was higher for Mangalica in the current study compared to the literature, as expected when compared to Yorkshire pigs, all three Mangalica breeds displayed much poorer growth performance.
Due to their extreme propensity to fatten, the Mangalica represent an attractive model to study fat development [26,27]. Furthermore, since the three breeds are derived from different lineages [8,9,10,15,17], we hypothesized that breed differences may exist that could be meaningful for producers contemplating adoption of the Mangalica. As expected, Yorkshire and Mangalica pigs demonstrated divergent phenotypes based upon the growth and carcass parameters measured. Importantly, when comparing Mangalica directly, significant differences in growth performance and body composition were indeed observed between the three Mangalica breeds. For instance, in the current study, Red Mangalica displayed the highest ADG and FE of the three breeds. Blonde Mangalica exhibited the highest degree of adiposity based upon subcutaneous fat thickness at the tenth rib. Surprisingly, though, Red Mangalica exhibited the most intramuscular fat of any breed examined. Swallow-bellied Mangalica displayed the lowest ADG and FE while offering no advantages concerning muscle size or marbling compared to the other Mangalica breeds. Given Red Mangalica had superior growth performance and marbling while having similar LEA and less fat cover overall, these data suggest the Red Mangalica offer economic and carcass merit advantages for producers targeting niche breeds compared to either Blonde or Swallow-bellied Mangalica. Upon surveying the literature, these data appear to be the first to directly characterize growth performance, body composition, and meat quality traits in the three Mangalica pig breeds simultaneously. Thus, this study represents a necessary and important contribution to the literature.
While marbling and pork color are critical quality attributes driving the purchasing behavior of consumers [2,3,4,5,6,7], growth performance is also an important consideration for producers given its economic impact and the need for producers to be able to sustainably supply product to niche markets to remain viable [4]. Given this, meat quality traits were directly compared in Yorkshire, Red Mangalica, and Red × Yorkshire crosses to test the hypothesis that crossbreeding represents a viable alternative to adopting purebred Mangalica. As expected, overall muscle growth and fattening were intermediary in the crossbred animals compared to either the purebred Yorkshire or Red Mangalica. When examining pork quality attributes, the F1 crosses displayed higher marbling scores and significantly lower cook loss versus the purebred Yorkshires suggesting an advantage for crossbred pigs. However, color scores in the crossbred animals resembled those of Yorkshire pigs, indicating that crossbreeding diminishes the color advantage associated with pork from purebred Red Mangalica. These results generally agree with studies that have examined quality attributes in Blonde × Duroc crossbred under intensive growing conditions whereby the crossbred animals displayed quality attribute values that were intermediary of their purebred Blonde and Duroc counterparts [22,23,24]. Nonetheless, these data appear to be the first to examine pork quality in Red Mangalica × Yorkshire crossbreds reared under intensive conditions. Data from the current study indicate that marbling can be improved through crossbreeding the Yorkshire with Red Mangalica, but this will be associated decreased lean and no color improvement.
Pork quality continues to be an important issue in the U.S. pork industry. The emphasis on selecting pigs for leanness has resulted in a reduction in pork quality due to a loss of color and intramuscular fat [3]. Color is the most important appearance quality trait affecting the visible appeal of pork to consumers [1,2,3,4,34,35,36]. Marbling is an important sensory trait that contributes to the juiciness and flavor of the product and is another key criterion impacting consumer choice at the meat counter [5,6,7]. Unfortunately, selection for leaner pigs has generally reduced the marbling content, contributing to a less satisfying eating experience by the consumer [1,2,3]. This has led to the creation of niche markets whereby consumers are willing to pay a premium for high quality pork products, especially at high end restaurants [4]. In the current study, Red Mangalica pork exhibited significantly higher marbling, firmness, and color scores, while exhibiting lower cook loss consistent with the perception of juicier chops. Crossbreeding was able to capture some of these quality advantages but not others. Collectively, these data indicate that while Mangalica pigs exhibit poorer growth performance, Mangalica pork displays superior meat quality attributes suggesting higher price points for Mangalica pork in niche markets are justified.
The extreme differences in adiposity that were observed between the Mangalica breeds and the Yorkshire in this study were anticipated. The divergent phenotypes are the apparent result of differences in breed development as historically Mangalica breeding strategies have largely been aimed at preservation or favoring more lard cover and quality while the modern Yorkshire phenotype is the result of the decades of intensive genetic selection for rapid, lean growth [8,26]. These differences were also exhibited in the present study by a greater expression of physiological markers of adipose tissue development, such as leptin and fatty acid synthase mRNA expression in the Mangalica compared to the Yorkshire. Such observations are consistent with studies that have examined differential gene expression within adipose tissue of Mangalica compared to lean swine breeds or that have identified single polymorphisms unique to the Mangalica breed [16,37,38,39,40]. While speculation concerning the precise physiological mechanisms driving the divergent adiposity observed between Mangalica and the Yorkshire pig is beyond the scope of data reported herein, it seems clear that distinct genomic differences exist between these breeds which likely result in significant differences in the biochemical and molecular pathways regulating energy balance, nutrient partitioning, and developmental processes such as adipose tissue accretion. Further studies are needed to characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying these phenotypes. Such new knowledge would yield potentially useful selectable markers that could enable improvements in meat quality and allow better control of adipose tissue growth in the pig.

5. Conclusions

Producers adopting heritage breeds as a strategy to target niche markets need an understanding of the growth properties and carcass merit of the breeds they select to effectively manage and market their hogs. The growth trials herein were conducted to directly compare the phenotypes of Blonde, Red, and Swallow-bellied Mangalica. These data show that Blonde Mangalica exhibited the greatest adiposity, suggesting they represent the most promising breed to be developed as a model to study adipose tissue development in the pig. While all Mangalica breeds demonstrated superior pork quality attributes compared to the modern Yorkshire hog, the Red Mangalica displayed the highest degree of marbling compared to all other pigs in this trial and superior growth performance to either Blonde or Swallow-bellied Mangalica. Crossbred pigs displayed increased marbling but did not exhibit a color advantage while producing less muscled carcasses. The Red Mangalica pig may be more attractive for adoption by producers targeting U.S. niche markets. Finally, these data support the hypothesis that higher price points for Mangalica pork in niche markets are justified.

Author Contributions

T.D.B., B.L.A. and J.T.S. conceived and designed the experiments. M.M.R., S.D.P., B.L.A. and T.D.B. performed the experiments. T.D.B. analyzed the data. T.D.B., M.M.R. and J.T.S. prepared the manuscript. T.D.B. and J.T.S. supervised the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station and the Hatch program of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Institutional Review Board Statement

All experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the Auburn University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. The Auburn University College of Agriculture is accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AALAC) and this study was conducted in accordance with the Federation of Animal Science Societies’ Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching. Approval number: PRN 2011-2001.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the assistance of Brian Anderson within the Auburn University Swine Research and Education Center for his world-renowned swine expertise and exceptional swine husbandry practices and the assistance of Barney Wilborn, Susan Dale, Pete Holloway, and TJ Mayfield at the Lambert-Powell Meats Laboratory during the conduct of the carcass harvest and fabrication portions of this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Carr, T.R.; Kauffman, R.G.; Meeker, D.L.; Meisinger, D.J. Factors Reducing Pork Value. In Pork Industry Handbook, PIH-135; Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service: West Lafayette, IN, USA, 1997; pp. 1–4. [Google Scholar]
  2. Brewer, M.S.; Zhu, L.G.; McKeith, F.K. Marbling effects on quality characteristics of pork loin chops: Consumer purchase intent, visual and sensory characteristics. Meat Sci. 2001, 59, 153–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. NPPC. Pork Composition and Quality Assessment Procedures; Berg, E.P., Ed.; National Pork Producer’s Council: Des Moines, IA, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  4. Honeyman, M.S.; Pirog, R.S.; Huber, G.H.; Lammers, P.J.; Hermann, J.R. The United States pork niche market phenomenon. J. Anim. Sci. 2006, 84, 2269–2275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Gandemer, G. Lipids in muscles and adipose tissues, changes during processing and sensory properties of meat products. Meat Sci. 2002, 62, 309–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Wood, J.D.; Enser, M.; Fisher, A.V.; Nute, G.R.; Sheard, P.R.; Richardson, R.I.; Whittington, F.M.; Hughes, S.I. Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: A review. Meat Sci. 2008, 78, 343–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Schumacher, M.; DelCurto-Wyffels, H.; Thomson, J.; Boles, J. Fat deposition and fat effects on meat quality-a review. Animals 2022, 12, 1550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Egerszegi, I.; Rátky, J.; Solti, L.; Brüssow, K.-P. Mangalica—An indigenous swine breed from Hungary (Review). Arch. Anim. Breed. 2003, 46, 245–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. DAD-IS. Domestic Animal Diversity Information System. 2022. Available online: http://dad.fao.org (accessed on 3 November 2022).
  10. Zsolnai, A.; Radnóczy, L.; Fésüs, L.; Anton, I. Do Mangalica pigs of different colours really belong to different breeds? Arch. Anim. Breed. 2006, 49, 477–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Egerszegi, I.; Schneider, F.; Rátky, J.; Soós, F.; Solti, L.; Manabe, N.; Brüssow, K.-P. Comparison of luteinizing hormone and steroid hormone secretion during the peri- and post-ovulatory periods in Mangalica and Landrace gilts. J. Reprod. Dev. 2003, 49, 291–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Rátky, J.; Torner, H.; Egerszegi, I.; Schneider, F.; Sarlos, P.; Manabe, N.; Brüssow, K.P. Ovarian activity and oocyte development during follicular development in pigs at different reproductive phases estimated by the repeated endoscopic method. J. Reprod. Dev. 2005, 51, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Rátky, J.; Brüssow, K.-P.; Egerszegi, I.; Torner, H.; Schneider, F.; Solti, L.; Manabe, N. Comparison of follicular and oocyte development and reproductive hormone secretion during the ovulatory period in Hungarian native breed, Mangalica, and Landrace gilts. J Reprod Dev. 2005, 51, 427–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Rátky, J.; Egerszegi, I.; Toth, P.; Keonuchan, S.; Nagai, T.; Kikuchi, K.; Manabe, N.; Brüssow, K.-P. Saving genetic resources of native pigs in Occidental and Oriental countries—Practical examples of the characterization and utilization of native pigs in Hungary and Laos. J. Reprod. Dev. 2013, 59, 437–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Marincs, F.; Molnár, J.; Tóth, G.; Stéger, V.; Barta, E. Introgression and isolation contributed to the development of Hungarian Mangalica pigs from a particular European ancient bloodline. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2013, 45, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Cannon, M.V.; Brandebourg, T.D.; Kohn, M.C.; Đikić, D.; Irwin, M.H.; Pinkert, C.A. Mitochondrial DNA sequence and phylogenetic evaluation of geographically disparate Sus scrofa breeds. Anim. Biotechnol. 2015, 26, 17–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Frank, K.; Molnár, J.; Barta, E.; Marincs, F. The full mitochondrial genomes of Mangalica pig breeds and their possible origin. Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2017, 2, 730–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Hallowell, H.A.; Higgins, K.V.; Roberts, M.; Johnson, R.M.; Bayne, J.; Maxwell, H.S.; Brandebourg, T.; Schwartz, E.H. Longitudinal Analysis of the Intestinal Microbiota in the Obese Mangalica Pig Reveals Alterations in Bacteria and Bacteriophage Populations Associated with Changes in Body Composition and Diet. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2021, 11, 698657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Egerszegi, I.; Torner, H.; Rátky, J.; Brüssow, K.-P. Follicular development and preovulatory oocyte maturation in Hungarian Mangalica and Landrace gilts. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2001, 44, 413–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Tomović, V.M.; Žlender, B.A.; Jokanović, M.R.; Tomović, M.M.; Šojiì, B.V.; Škaljac, S.B.; Kevrešan, Ž.S.; Tasić, T.A.; Ikonić, P.M.; Šoš, Z.M. Sensory, physical and chemical characteristics of meat from free-range reared Swallow-belly Mangulica pigs. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 2014, 24, 704–713. [Google Scholar]
  21. Tomovic, V.M.; Zlender, B.A.; Jokanović, M.R.; Tomovic, M.S.; Šojić, B.; Skaljac, S.B.; Tasic, T.A.; Ikonic, P.M.; Soso, M.M.; Hromis, N.M. Technological quality and composition of the M. semimembranosus and M. longissimus dorsi from Large White and Landrace Pigs. Agric. Food Sci. 2014, 23, 9–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Tomović, V.M.; Šević, R.; Jokanović, M.; Šojić, B.; Škaljac, S.; Tasić, T.; Ikonić, P.; Lušnic Polak, M.; Polak, T.; Demšar, L. Quality traits of longissimus lumborum muscle from White Mangalica, Duroc × White Mangalica and Large White pigs reared under intensive conditions and slaughtered at 150 kg live weight: A comparative study. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2016, 59, 401–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Tomović, V.; Stanišić, N.; Jokanović, M.R.; Kevrešan, Ž.S.; Sojic, B.V.; Skaljac, S.B.; Tomašević, I.B.; Martinović, A.B.; Despotović, A.R.; Suput, D.Z. Meat quality of Swallow-Belly Mangulica pigs reared under intensive production system and slaughtered at 100 kg live weight. Hem Ind. 2016, 75, 557–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Despotović, A.; Tomović, V.; Šević, R.; Jokanović, M.; Stanišić, N.; Škaljac, S.; Šojić, B.; Hromiš, N.; Stajić, S.; Petrović, J. Meat quality traits of M longissimus lumborum from White Manglaica and (Duroc × White Mangalica) × White Mangalica pigs reared under intensive conditions and slaughtered at about 180 kg live weight. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2018, 17, 859–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kyriazakis, I.; Whittemore, C.; Whittemore, C. Whittemore’s Science and Practice of Pig Production; Blackwell Pub: Oxford, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  26. McGlone, J.; Pond, W.G. Pig Production: Biological Principles and Applications; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, USA, 2003; p. 3950. ISBN 0-8273-8484-X. [Google Scholar]
  27. Mersmann, H.J. Lipid Metabolism in Swine Models. In Swine in Cardiovascular Research; Hubert, S., Harry, M., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1986. [Google Scholar]
  28. Petroman, C.; Popescu, G.; Szakal, R.-N.; Păunescu, V.; Drăghia, L.; Bujancă, G.; Chirilă, C.; Hădărugă, D.; Văduva, L.; Hădărugă, N.; et al. Fatty Acid Profile of Lipid Fractions of Mangalitza (Sus scrofa domesticus) from Northern Romania: A GC-MS-PCA Approach. Foods 2021, 10, 242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Straadt, I.K.; Aaslyng, M.D.; Bertram, H.C. Sensory and consumer evaluation of pork loin from crossbreeds between Danish Landrace, Yorkshire, Duroc, Iberian, and Mangalitza. Meat Sci. 2013, 95, 27–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Pfaffl, M.W. The ongoing evolution of qpcr. Methods 2010, 50, 215–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Lopez-Bote, C.J. Sustained utilization of the Iberian pig breed. Meat Sci. 1998, 49, S17–S27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Sutherland, M.A.; Rodriguez-Zas, S.L.; Ellis, M.; Salak-Johnson, J.L. Breed and age affect baseline immune traits, cortisol, and performance in growing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 83, 2087–2095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Holck, J.T.; Schinckel, A.P.; Coleman, J.L.; Wilt, V.M.; Senn, M.K.; Thacker, B.J.; Thacker, E.L.; Grant, A.L. The influence of environment on the growth of commercial finisher pigs. J. Swine Health Prod. 1998, 6, 141–149. [Google Scholar]
  34. Faustman, C.; Cassens, R.G. The effect of cattle breed and muscle type on discoloration and various biochemical parameters in fresh beef. J. Anim. Sci. 1991, 69, 184–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Risvik, E. Sensory properties and preferences. Meat Sci. 1994, 36, 67–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Cheftel, J.; Culioli, J. Effects of high pressure on meat: A review. Meat Sci. 1997, 46, 211–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Zsolnai, A.; Tóth, G.; Molnár, J.; Stéger, V.; Marincs, F.; Jánosi, A.; Ujhelyi, G.; Szabó, E.K.; Mohr, A.; Anton, I.; et al. Looking for breed differentiating SNP loci and for a SNP set for parentage testing in Mangalica. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2013, 56, 200–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Manunza, A.; Amills, M.; Noce, A.; Cabrera, B.; Zidi, A.; Eghbalsaied, S.; De Albornoz, E.C.; Portell, M.; Mercade, A.; Sanchez, A.; et al. Romanian wild boars and Mangalitza pigs have a European ancestry and harbour genetic signatures compatible with past population bottlenecks. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 29913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Tempfli, K.; Kiss, B.; Szalai, K.; Simon, Z.; Pongrácz, L.; Papp, B. Differential expression of six genes in fat-type Hungarian Mangalica and other pigs. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2016, 59, 259–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Bâlteanu, V.A.; Cardoso, T.F.; Amills, M.; Egerszegi, I.; Anton, I.; Beja-Pereira, A.; Zsolnai, A. The footprint of recent and strong demographic decline in the genomes of Mangalitza pigs. Animal 2019, 13, 2440–2446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Foods 12 00554 g001 550
Figure 1. Comparison of weight matched Blonde Mangalica (left) and Yorkshire (right) pigs at 115 kg live weight.
Figure 1. Comparison of weight matched Blonde Mangalica (left) and Yorkshire (right) pigs at 115 kg live weight.
Foods 12 00554 g001
Foods 12 00554 g002 550
Figure 2. Depiction of differences in subcutaneous fat development and thickness at 115 kg harvest weight between Yorkshire (A) and Blonde Mangalica (B) pigs. Tissue was harvested immediately following exsanguination by dissecting an 8 cm deep plug of tissue over the tenth rib from the skin to the underlying longissimus muscle. Three distinct adipose tissue layers are visible on the Mangalica sample while the much thinner Yorkshire sample is devoid of the inner layer of subcutaneous fat and exhibits much thinner existing layers compared to the Mangalica.
Figure 2. Depiction of differences in subcutaneous fat development and thickness at 115 kg harvest weight between Yorkshire (A) and Blonde Mangalica (B) pigs. Tissue was harvested immediately following exsanguination by dissecting an 8 cm deep plug of tissue over the tenth rib from the skin to the underlying longissimus muscle. Three distinct adipose tissue layers are visible on the Mangalica sample while the much thinner Yorkshire sample is devoid of the inner layer of subcutaneous fat and exhibits much thinner existing layers compared to the Mangalica.
Foods 12 00554 g002
Foods 12 00554 g003 550
Figure 3. Depiction of differences in back fat and loin eye area on carcasses at 115 kg harvest weight between Yorkshire (A) and Blonde Mangalica pigs (B). Carcasses were split at the tenth rib to measure backfat thickness and loin eye area following storage at 4 °C for 24 h. These representative images are consistent with carcass data reported in Table 1.
Figure 3. Depiction of differences in back fat and loin eye area on carcasses at 115 kg harvest weight between Yorkshire (A) and Blonde Mangalica pigs (B). Carcasses were split at the tenth rib to measure backfat thickness and loin eye area following storage at 4 °C for 24 h. These representative images are consistent with carcass data reported in Table 1.
Foods 12 00554 g003
Foods 12 00554 g004 550
Figure 4. The expression of leptin and fatty acid synthetase (FAS) mRNA as markers for adiposity in lean Yorkshire and obese Mangalica pigs. (A): Leptin mRNA levels in subcutaneous adipose tissue. (B): FAS mRNA levels in subcutaneous adipose tissue. The mRNA levels were measured using real-time PCR. Expression levels were normalized relative to the porcine S15 gene and are presented as fold change relative to expression in lean pigwith * denoting p < 0.05. n = 8 per treatment.
Figure 4. The expression of leptin and fatty acid synthetase (FAS) mRNA as markers for adiposity in lean Yorkshire and obese Mangalica pigs. (A): Leptin mRNA levels in subcutaneous adipose tissue. (B): FAS mRNA levels in subcutaneous adipose tissue. The mRNA levels were measured using real-time PCR. Expression levels were normalized relative to the porcine S15 gene and are presented as fold change relative to expression in lean pigwith * denoting p < 0.05. n = 8 per treatment.
Foods 12 00554 g004
Table
Table 1. Growth performance and body composition of Yorkshire and three Mangalica breeds fed ad libitum 1,2.
Table 1. Growth performance and body composition of Yorkshire and three Mangalica breeds fed ad libitum 1,2.
VariableYorkshireBlondeRedSwallow-BellySEMp-Value
Live weight, kg102.1101.7101.4101.52.10.94
Back fat, cm2.34 c6.68 a5.78 b5.87 b0.230.0001
Marbling score 31.20 c2.53 b4.17 a2.67 b0.550.01
Muscle score 42.23 a1.50 b1.53 b1.25 b0.290.01
LEA, cm216.56 a7.87 b8.06 b6.91 b0.480.0001
Average daily gain, kg0.97 a0.56 b0.62 b0.40 c0.030.0001
Daily feed intake, kg2.71 a2.31 b2.43 b1.91 c0.100.0002
Feed efficiency0.357 a0.242 b0.255 b0.209 c0.0060.0001
1 Yorkshire breed has been selected for rapid growth; Mangalica breeds: Blonde, Red, Swallow-belly. 2 Values are lsmeans, n = 16 per treatment, differing superscripts within a variable denote differences between breeds, p < 0.05. 3 Subjective Marbling Score: 1 to 2.4 = Devoid; 2.5 to 4 = Traces; 4 to 5 = Slight; etc. 4 Muscle score: measured in ½ point increments with 1 = Thin and 3 = Thickest.
Table
Table 2. Meat quality traits by group 1.
Table 2. Meat quality traits by group 1.
VariableYorkYork x RedRedSEMp-Value
Live weight, kg110.6 110.4111.53.30.98
Back fat, cm.1.96 c 3.66 b6.71 a0.280.0001
Marbling score 21.62 c 2.93 b4.45 a0.390.0005
LEA, cm221.6 a14.7 b9.70 c1.190.0001
Muscle score 32.39 a1.83 b1.21 c0.170.05
Firmness 42.70 b2.85 b3.32 a0.200.03
Loin Ultimate pH 55.36 b5.54 b5.86 a0.110.01
Ham Ultimate pH 55.43 c 5.67 b5.97 a0.090.003
Color 63.89 b 3.53 b4.90 a0.250.05
L*, lightness60.4 a 60.8 a51.9 b1.630.002
a*, redness10.2 b 9.6 b11.9 a0.300.0004
b*, yellowness17.4 a 17.3 a16.0 b0.500.10
Cook loss, %15.3 a 12.8 b10.2 c0.980.0071
WBS, N 73.77 3.433.850.160.18
1 Values are lsmeans, n = 16 per treatment, differing superscripts within a variable denote differences between groups, p < 0.05; 2 Subjective Marbling Score: 1 to 2.4 = Devoid; 2.5 to 4 = Traces; 4 to 5 = Slight; etc.; 3 Muscle score: measured in ½ point increments with 1 = Thin and 3 = Thickest; 4 Firmness: measured in ½ point increments with 1 = Very Soft and 5 = Very Firm; 5 Ulimate pH: measured 24 h post-harvest on chilled carcasses; 6 Visual (subjective) color score: five-point scale where 1 = very light and pale; 5 = dark red etc. 7 WBS: Warner Bratzler Shear Force.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Roberts, M.M.; Perkins, S.D.; Anderson, B.L.; Sawyer, J.T.; Brandebourg, T.D. Characterization of Growth Performance, Pork Quality, and Body Composition in Mangalica Pigs. Foods 2023, 12, 554. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030554

AMA Style

Roberts MM, Perkins SD, Anderson BL, Sawyer JT, Brandebourg TD. Characterization of Growth Performance, Pork Quality, and Body Composition in Mangalica Pigs. Foods. 2023; 12(3):554. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030554

Chicago/Turabian Style

Roberts, Morgan M., Stephanie D. Perkins, Brian L. Anderson, Jason T. Sawyer, and Terry D. Brandebourg. 2023. "Characterization of Growth Performance, Pork Quality, and Body Composition in Mangalica Pigs" Foods 12, no. 3: 554. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030554

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop