1. Introduction
Nowadays, the massive consumption of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines can lead to fossil fuel depletion. The combustion of fossil fuels produces harmful exhaust gases that can change the climate and deteriorate the health of humans [
1]. Diesel fuel can be wholly or partially substituted with biodiesel fuel from various resources in diesel engines, which is a green fuel with good combustion properties, including high burning ability and oxygenation [
2,
3].
Biodiesel can be produced cheaply using modernized technologies from various resources such as edible oil and nonedible and animal fat [
4]. Note that direct oil from biodiesel resources cannot be applied to diesel engines as a fuel before converting to biodiesel fuels due to their high density, viscosity, and water content values [
5]. The high viscosity can cause gum for the combustion chamber and injection components. The water content can cause corrosion and wear to the engine components [
6].
Biodiesel from waste cooking oil can be produced using multiple manufacturing techniques such as pyrolysis, dilution, transesterification, and micro-emulsion [
7]. Dilution can be achieved by mixing WCO at a maximum allowable percentage of 20% with fossil diesel fuel. Dilution for WCO can prevent engine damage causes [
8]. Pyrolysis is an anaerobic decomposition of the oil by heating without oxygen [
9]. The micro-emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of fat combined with methanol or ethanol as a solvent to reduce viscosity and increase spraying quality [
10]. Transesterification converts biodiesel resources to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and glycerol using alcohol like methanol and a catalyst [
11]. There are four types of catalysts: acid, base, nano-catalyst, and enzyme [
12]. Base catalysts have several benefits, such as availability, less energy requirement, fewer corrosion issues for engine components, and faster action than acid catalysts [
13].
In a recent study [
14], Cyclohexane was added by volume at 5, 10, and 15% as a flammable liquid to WCO biodiesel and diesel fuel in three blends: B60:D35C5, B60D30C10, and B60D25C15. The results showed that the engine performance and emission attributes improved if fuel blends were used compared to fossil diesel fuel. In addition, by increasing the injection pressure from 150 bars to 250 bars, the UHC, CO, and BSFC decreased. An experimental study was conducted using a single-cylinder diesel engine to compare the differences between two combustion modes, blend, add fuel combustion, and RCCI combustion. The blended fuel was biodiesel/n-butanol at various EGR rates, various timings of injection, and various loads of the engine. The optimum EGR percentage was 30%. The blended fuel mode maintained high BTE and low emissions but with high NOx [
15,
16]. In addition, the advanced technology suggestions for improving the combustion and emissions characteristics were applied in conventional diesel engines [
17,
18]. The PPC engine concept was applied using an oxygenated and high-octane rating fuel such as methanol with different fuel injection strategies. In addition, the emissions reductions from using a low-carbon fuel such as alcohol reached 10% in some conditions compared with conventional engines.
Nanoparticles are the main elements in nanotechnology. Nanoparticles have a range of sizes from 1 nm to nearly 100 nm and have many shapes: cylindrical, spherical, and flat [
19]. They can be crystalline or amorphous with zero, one, two, and three dimensions [
20]. Nanoparticles can be classified according to their physical and chemical properties as organic, metal, ceramic, semiconductor polymeric, lipid, carbon-based, or composite nanoparticles [
21]. The organic type is used mainly in medicine [
22,
23]. Metal nanoparticles and their oxides have good specifications for combustion in compression ignition engines due to their oxygen content, which can reduce harmful emissions and increase the surface area to volume ratio to increase the evaporation rate of the mixture [
24,
25,
26,
27].
Nanoparticles can be prevented from crumbling in the base fuel by using solvent and surfactant to increase the dissolving and guarantee the stability of the blend. Nanoparticles can be characterized and inspected through tests like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmittance electron microscope (TEM) tests. The nanoparticle production methods include the top-down and bottom-up production processes [
28]. The top-down approach is a damaged technique for the most significant molecules that are transformed into small ones and converted to nanoparticles [
29,
30]. Moreover, a bottom-up process is a reverse approach for building up nanoparticles via spinning and atomic condensation.
The effect of using CeO
2 nanoparticles dispersed in biodiesel on the elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), size distribution, combustion, and emissions of the CRDI diesel engine is explored [
31]. The diesel engine operated without a diesel particulate filter to prove that the emissions depend on the filter. The results indicated that adding CeO
2 nanoparticles to the biodiesel improved the in-cylinder pressure and the heat release rate. Using B15 with CeO
2 at 20 PPM, the Co and UHC significantly decreased, but NO
x emission increased compared to pure diesel. It was also observed that the B0 and B0C20 fuels produced particles with diameters more significant than the diameters of B10C20 and B15C20. The EC soot was higher than the OC for all fuels. The influence of CeO
2 nanoparticles on dual fuel and varied loads of diesel engines was studied. The CeO
2 nanoparticles were dispersed in methanol at 25 ppm and 100 ppm concentrations (MCN).
The diesel engine was operated in three modes: The first was direct injection mode. The second mode was injecting the methanol in the intake manifold, and the diesel fuel was directly injected. The third mode injects the MCN in the intake manifold and injects the diesel fuel directly. It was observed that there was an increase in the peak in-cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate using the MCN mode. The BTE and the BSFC were enhanced using the MCN compared to methanol mode. Most of the emissions were reduced using the MCN mode [
32]. This paper [
33] investigated the characteristics of the direct-injection diesel engine. Pure diesel fuel (D), WCO biodiesel (B), n-butanol (But), and titanium dioxide (TiO
2) nanoparticles were used. The test fuels were D100, B20, B20+ TiO
2, B20But10, and B20But10+TiO
2. Adding TiO
2 increased the brake power and torque compared to using TiO
2 nanoparticles. Adding n-butanol and TiO
2 to the test fuels improved the peak in-cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate compared to pure diesel. The CO, UHC, and smoke opacity emissions were reduced, and the NO
X emissions were reduced using n-butanol.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are one of the significant nanoparticles. CNTs are described as nonmetal nanoparticles. CNTs have properties better than metal nanoparticles, such as high thermal conductivity [
34]. CNTs can be used as a catalyst to nanofuels, improving the attributes of diesel engines by increasing the surface area to volume ratio, and thus the cetane number of the fuel [
35]. The BTE of the diesel engine can be enhanced by adding CNTs due to the high chemical reactivity [
36]. CNTs added to the diesel-water emulsion can produce better BTE than diesel-water only. Using CNTs in diesel engines can increase the peak in-cylinder pressure and shorten the combustion duration [
37]. The peak heat release rate increases by dosing CNTs compared to base fuel only due to the high surface area to volume ratio, evaporation rate, and chemical reactivity [
38].
CNTs have effective influences on the emissions produced by the diesel engine. CO emissions decreased with CNTs due to complete combustion, resulting from good blended fuel atomization and high surface area to volume ratio [
39]. Also, the UHC emissions decreased due to combustion completion [
40]. The reductions in NOx emissions depend on the fuel type, the combustion duration, and the combustion temperatures. Low soot emissions are also observed using CNTs in diesel engines because of the high surface area to volume ratio and complete combustion.
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were used with C. Inophyllum biodiesel and diesel blend (CIB20) to investigate the characteristics of diesel engines [
41]. The MWCNTs were dispersed in the mix at 20, 40, 60, and 80 ppm concentrations. The results showed that the combination with MWCNTs at 60 ppm gave the highest percentage of BTE. All emissions were reduced with MWCNT compared to using CIB20 alone. Silicon dioxide (SiO
2) nanoparticles were used with methanol in diesel engine operation. The test fuels are diesel, diesel fuel with methanol, and finally, methanol diesel fuel with SiO
2 nanoparticles (MSN). The MSN fuel was injected into the intake manifold. It was observed that the peak in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate are increased in addition to enhancements in the BTE [
42]. Nitrogen-doped multiwalled carbon nanotubes (N-doped MWCNTs) were used to enhance the attributes of the diesel engine. The MWCNTs were used as a reference for comparing with N-doped MWCNTs. The results showed enhancements in the engine attributes using N-doped MWCNTs [
43].
Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles can be used in various applications, such as heat transfers. As nanoparticle additives, GO nanoparticles are used in diesel engine combustion due to their energy density, high thermal conductivity, and environmentally friendly [
44,
45]. GO nanoparticles can complete the combustion process due to the increased surface area to volume ratio, high chemical reactivity, and the existence of oxygen atoms [
46]. GO nanoparticles were dispersed in biodiesel at B0, B10, and B20, and the GO concentrations were 30, 60, and 90 ppm, distributed via ultra-sonication [
43]. The attributes of the diesel engine were investigated, and it was observed that GO nanoparticles enhanced the BTE and torque and reduced the BSFC. Also, reductions in CO and UHC emissions were observed, while increased CO
2 and NO
x emissions were reported.
Three nanoparticle additives GO, TiO
2, and GO with TiO
2, were used to study the characteristics of a cylinder diesel engine [
47]. There was a reduction in BSFC of 12% using diesel with TiO
2 fuel compared to pure diesel. The in-cylinder peak pressures using nanoparticle additive fuels were higher than those using pure diesel. Using TiO
2 and GO-TiO
2 with diesel fuel reduced the NOx emissions formation and increased the CO emissions. In another study [
48], GO nanoparticles at varying doses of 30, 60, and 90 PPM were added to the Oenothera lamarchiana biodiesel and diesel fuel (B20) blend to investigate the attributes of diesel engines. The results showed that the brake power, exhaust gas temperature, and CO
2 and NOx emissions increased while the UHC and CO emissions were reduced. Single-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, and cerium oxide were used to investigate the characteristics of diesel engines at different loads [
37]. A reduction in the combustion duration of 10.3%, the combustion advancing by 18.5%, an improvement in the BSFC of 15.2%, and a decrease in CO and UHC of 23.4% and 24.1%, respectively, were observed using single-walled CNTs at 25 PPM concentration.
In preparing the nanofuels, the dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fuel is one of the drawbacks. The method of nanoparticle distribution inside the original fuel is essential for enhancing the surface changes of nanoparticles due to the repulsion forces between all nanoparticles. Electrostatic dispersion is one method that can be attempted by coating the nanoparticles with a dispersing agent or surfactant [
49,
50]. The nanoparticle’s surface is covered with the surfactant. Some changes are generated, producing repulsive forces between the nanoparticles in the base fuel. The surfactant amount must be maintained to act as the suitable coating, prevent repulsion, and compensate for the attraction forces of van der Waals. The type of surfactant can be classified into ionic surfactants and cationic surfactants [
51,
52].
The present study uses toluene (T) as a surfactant for dispersing GO or CNT nanoparticles in the fuel. Toluene was experimented with three percentages of the blend volume: 2%T, 4%T, and 6%T. It is observed that the ideal volume percentage is 4%T due to the stability and homogeneity of the blend and its ability to prevent the repulsion forces between the nanoparticles as much as possible.
The recent research aims to study the influence of nanoparticles dispersed in different blends of WCO biodiesel and diesel fuel on the combustion, performance, and emission attributes of single-cylinder, constant-speed diesel engines at varying loads. The nanoparticle types are CNTs or GO nanoparticles dispersed individually using toluene at 4% by volume in 56% fossil diesel fuel and 40% WCO biodiesel. The tested fuels are pure diesel (B0), a blend of WCO biodiesel at 40% and 60% diesel fuel (B40), and B40 with 50, 100, and 150 PPM of CNTs or GO nanoparticles.