Next Article in Journal
Population Genomic Approaches for Weed Science
Previous Article in Journal
Strigolactone Signaling Genes Showing Differential Expression Patterns in Arabidopsis max Mutants
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 8
Issue 9
10.3390/plants8090353
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Rutaceae) from Burkina Faso

by
Lassané Ouédraogo
1,2,*,
Dominik Fuchs
3,
Hanno Schaefer
3 and
Martin Kiendrebeogo
2
1
Centre National de Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST), Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles, 03 BP 7047 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso
2
Laboratoire de Biochimie & Chimie Appliquées, Université Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 09 BP 848 Ouagadougou 09, Burkina Faso
3
Plant Biodiversity Research, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Emil-Ramann Strasse 2, D-85354 Freising, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2019, 8(9), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8090353
Submission received: 3 June 2019 / Revised: 4 September 2019 / Accepted: 12 September 2019 / Published: 19 September 2019
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Systematics, Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Classification)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides is a West African forest tree that is used for example against malaria and sickle cell anemia in Burkina Faso. The goal of this study was to analyze the genetic and morphological diversity of the species within wild populations in Burkina Faso, where it is potentially under threat due to the uncontrolled harvesting of its roots. Seventy-two trees from three different sites in Southwestern Burkina Faso were analyzed. Each tree was characterized by 12 traits specifying the period of flowering and maturity as well as morphological characteristics of the stem, leaves, and seeds. The molecular analysis was performed using two plastid DNA regions (psbA-trnH and trnL-trnF) and two nuclear regions (GBSSI and ITS) to identify the genetic diversity of the species for further development of a management plan for ex situ reproduction and in situ conservation. We found variability in morphological traits correlating with the geographic distance of the study sites. The molecular analysis, in contrast, revealed hardly any genetic variability among the tested trees and no population structure. Whether the differences in morphological traits are caused by different environmental conditions or by genetic variability in genes linked to morphological traits needs further testing. The apparent lack of genetic differentiation suggests that germplasm throughout the study region is suitable for planting in conservation actions. Efficient conservation management should involve local communities, especially those interested in traditional medicine.

1. Introduction

The genus Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae) evolved about 19 million years ago in Asia [1] and comprises about 250 species [2]. Recent work by Perichet et al. [3] has shown that the traditional circumscription of the genus should be revised and Fagara should be split from Zanthoxylum.
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepernick & Timler is a small West African tree distributed from Senegal to Nigeria (Figure 1) [4]. In Burkina Faso, the plant species can be found in the southwestern part of the country (Figure 2) [5]. The plant grows as a prickly, low-branching shrub or tree, usually up to 12 meters tall, occasionally to 16 meters [6], with a diameter of up to 0.5 m [7]. In Burkina Faso, it grows in a range of habitats, including savanna, thickets, dry and transitional forests, and termite mounds [4]. The main vectors for the dispersal of this species are frugivorous animals such as migrating birds, which feed on the fruit [8].
Various parts of this species are used singly or in combination with other plants for medicinal purposes. The roots, leaves, and stem bark are commonly marketed in Cote d’Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria, in which they have been used in a traditional way by the rural population for their healthcare needs [10]. These plant materials serve as a remedy for the treatment of malaria, tuberculosis, ulcers, hemorrhoids, injuries, and syphilitic wounds as well as arthritic pain [10,11,12]. The roots are also used as the main ingredient to produce local phytomedicine against sickle cell anemia [10]. In Togo, hydroxy-2-methyl-benzoic acid was isolated as an active compound from this tree species and marketed in tablet-form under the name of Drepanostat® for sickle cell disease treatment [13]. In Burkina Faso, FACA®, a phytomedicine derived from roots of Z. zanthoxyloides and Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait.f. received the selling authorization on the market for sickle cell disease treatment [13]. Other compounds, such as Divanilloylquinic acids and Burkinabins A, B, and C, were also identified in the root bark [14,15].
About 10 species of the genus Zanthoxylum are already listed as endangered in the red list of IUCN [16]. Their main threats according to IUCN are the loss of their habitat, natural disasters, and deforestation. For Z. zanthoxyloides, the main threat is its use as a wild-collected medicinal plant [17]. In Burkina Faso, the species is limited to the southwestern corner of the country, and the species is relatively rare in its distribution area, usually reaching about five individuals per location. Since it is often the root that is used for pharmaceutical purposes, collectors tend to uproot the plants, often killing them, which results in a very unsustainable usage. An even higher future demand for this species is very likely [18] due to the increasing number of phytochemical studies highlighting its values [12,13,14]. In addition, the species is used for construction (e.g., temporary shelter for livestock [19]) and as firewood [20]. The seeds are used for seasoning, and the plant has some importance in traditional religion as protection against bad spirits [12]. Ex situ cultivation or in situ measures to enhance regeneration in nature are possible strategies to provide sufficient plant material for the phytomedicinal industry and traditional therapists and at the same time secure the long-term survival of native populations. Unfortunately, attempts to regenerate this species from seeds have not been successful so far [21], and no attempts have been made to develop a management plan for sustainable harvesting of the species.
Furthermore, the genetic diversity of wild populations of Z. zanthoxyloides in different regions of Burkina Faso has not yet been investigated in detail. The use and sustainable management of trees or shrubs require the analysis of genetic diversity and selection of locally adapted individuals. We therefore assessed morphological and genetic diversity of Z. zanthoxyloides in Burkina Faso in order to develop further cultivation or regeneration strategies with the final objective to implement conservation this useful phytogenetic resource.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sites and Sampling

The sampling sites were selected on the basis of a previous study analyzing the phytochemical variability of Z. zanthoxyloides by spectroscopy [5]. This study had identified three sites (Niangoloko, Sidéradougou, and Orodara), where most therapists and medicine collectors gather their plant organs (see Figure 2), and these sites have also been used by Bonnet and Arbonnier [9] to sample specimens for spectral signature analyses. The site of Orodara is a wooded savanna located in the region of the Hauts-Bassins with a climate marked by a wet season between May and November and a dry season ranging from November to April. The dominant tree species in this savanna are Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F.Gaertn.), Sapotaceae; Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr., Guiera senegalensis J.F.Gmel., and Combretum micranthum G.Don, Combretaceae; and Cassia sieberiana D.C., Fabaceae. The sites of Sidéradougou and Niangoloko are located in the forests of the Cascades region and belong to a climate of the South Sudanese type characterized by a wet season from April to October and a dry season from November to March. Climate and soil conditions of the sampling sites are summarized in Table 1. The vegetation is characterized by a mosaic of gallery forests and woody and shrub savannas [22]. The most dominant vegetation units are light forests of Isoberlinia doka Craib & Stapf and Isoberlinia dalzielii Craib & Stapf (Fabaceae) of wooded savannas with Terminalia laxiflora Engl. & Diels and Terminalia mollis M.A.Lawson (Combretaceae) and some dry forest relics with Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr. (Combretaceae) [23].
One voucher specimen per site was collected, authenticated, and stored in the herbarium of the Natural History Laboratory/National Center for Scientific and Technological Research (HNBU). These specimens were deposited under the voucher references Ouédraogo 3061, 3062, and 3063, respectively, for Niangoloko, Orodara, and Sidéradougou [5].
The study was carried out following the method described by Chehade et al. [24]. For each study site, the observations were recorded on four plots of 5000 m2 at a 250 m distance [5]. From each site, 24 trees of wild Z. zanthoxyloides of a similar growth stage were selected for morphological studies. Of each tree, 30 leaves, 30 inflorescences, and 30 seeds were sampled. This resulted in a total of 720 leaves, 720 inflorescences, and 720 seeds collected within the four plots. Among the trees used for morphological characterization, six trees per site were selected for molecular analyses, and one leaf sample was collected per tree. Soil samples were collected at a depth to 0–100 cm in each study site (Table 2), and physical parameters were analyzed (clay, silt, and sand proportion).

2.2. Morphological Characterization

2.2.1. Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment

To compare the morphology of the trees in the three study sites, we chose a set of traits that are easy to measure without a significant impact on the tree and that had been used in previous analyses (e.g., Eyog-Matig et al. [25]; Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim [10]). Two of the traits were qualitative traits (flowering and maturity date), and 10 were quantitative (trunk height and diameter, number of the stems, length and width of the leaf, petiole length, width and length of the inflorescence, seed diameter, and hundred-seed-weight). The phenological traits were assessed during 12 visits from December 2016 to January 2018. The quantitative traits were characterized using a tape meter, except for the seeds for which we used a vernier caliper gauge. The seeds were weighed using a balance (Adventurer Ohaus, Nänikon, Switzerland).

2.2.2. Morphological Data Analysis

Analysis of variance was performed using XLSTAT 2019 to evaluate quantitative traits of the species from the three study sites. Testing for significant differences was carried out using the Newman–Keuls test at the 5% threshold. Qualitative traits were analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis (cross tabulation). A principal component analysis allowed us to assess the correlation between the morphological traits with the physical parameters of the soils from the study sites.

2.3. Molecular Characterization

2.3.1. DNA Extraction and Quantification

Genomic DNA from dry leaf samples of Z. zanthoxyloides (approximately 20 mg dry leaf per sample) was extracted using the NucleoSpin Plant II DNA Kit (Machery-Nagel, Düren, Germany), in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual. The amplification of the DNA was carried out using the KAPA hifi PCR ready mix (Kapa Biosystems, Wilmington, MA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s manual. A DNA template of 20–100 ng was used in 15 µL of reaction volume. Six pairs of primers were used for amplification (Table 3). Two primer pairs amplified nuclear genes (ITS and GBSSI), and four primer pairs amplified chloroplast regions (trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH). The ITS region, psbA-trnH, and trnL-trnF are commonly used for phylogenetic studies [26,27]. The region GBSSI is a homolog of known genes in the biosynthesis of starch and important in the production of seeds [28].

2.3.2. Purifying the PCR Products and Sequencing

The obtained PCR products were checked on an agarose gel and then enzymatically purified with the EXO-SAP mix (Jena Bioscience, Jena, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Sequencing reactions consisted of 2.5 µL of clean PCR product, 5 µL of H2O, and 2.5 µL of primer (10 µM). Cycle sequencing was performed by GATC Biotech (Konstanz, Germany) with the BigDye Terminator cycle sequencing kit on an ABI Prism 3100 Avant automated sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA).

2.3.3. Editing and Alignment

Editing of the raw sequences and assembly of reads was done with Geneious R11 version 11.0.3 (Biomatters, Auckland, New Zealand). To build the alignments, we used MUSCLE [33], as implemented in Geneious. The newly generated sequences were blasted against the NCBI database ({http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nucleotide/}) to check their identity.

3. Results

3.1. Morphological Characterization

The variance analysis indicated significant differences between the three study sites in the height of the trunk (P < 0.0001), the average diameter of the trunk (P < 0.05), and the number of stems per tree (P < 0.0001) (Table 4). The analysis of the height of the trunk showed that Sidéradougou trees (203.7 cm) were significantly higher than those of Niangoloko (151.2 cm) and the latter higher than the Orodara ones (106.5 cm). The diameter of the tree trunk from Sidéradougou (60.67 cm) was significantly larger than the ones observed for Niangoloko (45.63 cm) and Orodara (42.04 cm) trees. The average number of stems per tree ranged from 2.7 (Orodara) to 1.25 (Niangoloko) and 1.0 (Sidéradougou) (Table 4).
The Sidéradougou trees are distinguished by the morphology of their single trunk, which is taller and larger than those of the other two regions and furthermore do not carry prickles. Figure 3 shows the trunk aspect of Z. zanthoxyloides from the three study sites.
Lengths of leaves and petioles are significantly different (P < 0.05), but there is no significant difference in the width of leaves (P = 0.891) and inflorescence (P = 0.074) between the three sampling regions (Table 5). Highly significant differences (P < 0.0001) were observed in inflorescence length, seed diameter (Figure 4), and hundred-seed weight. Inflorescence length oscillated from 5.27 (Niangoloko) to 8.83 cm (Orodara). The average diameter of the seed was in the range of 3.05 (Niangoloko) and 3.42 cm (Orodara). The hundred-seed weight varied between 2.78 (Orodara) and 2.01 g (Niangoloko). Specimens from Niangoloko are characterized by their smaller inflorescence length, seed diameter, and hundred-seed weight in comparison with those of the two other regions.
An early flowering (May–July) followed by intermediate flowering (August–October), and late flowering period (November–January) characterized Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides trees. Fruit maturation also occurred in three periods: early (July–September), intermediate (October–December), and late (January–March). Most of the trees from Sidéradougou and Niangoloko flowered between August and October and the majority of the fruits matured from October to December. In contrast, most of the Orodara trees flowered and fruited in the late seasons. The flowering and fruiting periods per site are given in Table 6.

3.2. Correlation of Morphological Traits and Physical Parameters of Soil

There was a positive correlation (0.70 < r < 0.75) between the weight of 100 seeds, and the amount of clay (up to 30%) and silt (up to 23%). Correlation was negative (r = −0.75) between the weight of 100 seeds and sand up to 46%. The height of the trunk was positively correlated (r = 0.49) to the amount of sand up to 46%, and negatively correlated (−0.55 < r < −0.49) to clay (up to 30%) and silt up to 23%. The diameter of the trunk is negatively correlated (r = −0.26) to the amount of the silt (up to 23%). The number of stems per feet is positively correlated to the amount of clay (up to 30%) and silt up to 23% (0.67< r < 0.68) and negatively to the sand up to 46% (r = −0.67). The results of Pearson correlation are summarized in Table 7.
The principal component analysis (PCA) of morphological and soils traits showed that some variables can be grouped together (Figure 5). Most variations are explained by the two first PCs with a cumulative value of 56.2% (PC1: 38.91; PC2: 17.28). The positive side of PC1 axis regrouped leaf, trunk traits, and sand percentage. The negative side of PC1 regrouped inflorescences, seeds traits, number of tree per feet, and clay and silt percentage.

3.3. Molecular Characterization

The results of the PCR indicated that both the nuclear primers (ITS and GBSSI), and the chloroplast primers (psbA-trnH and trnL-trnF) exhibited good priming efficiency. In the nuclear GBSSI gene sequence (Figure 6), all the species of Z. zanthoxyloides were identical except for one substitution in a sample from Niangoloko and Sidéradougou, respectively.
Using the ITS primer pair, we obtained sequences from multiple samples from the three locations (n = 11). The ITS sequence alignment (Figure 7) revealed complete sequence identity in the majority of the samples (n = 8) with three exceptions. One of the three samples from Niangoloko (HS3614) exhibited seven single nucleotide exchanges more or less evenly spread along the gene. One of the five samples from Sidéradougou had two single base exchanges, and a further sample from this location showed another single nucleotide substitution. All these exchanges were autapomorphies, as they occurred only in individual samples.
In the six psbA-trnH sequences analyzed, we found only one exchange in one of the two samples from Sidéradougou (Figure 8).
In the two samples from Orodara and Sidéradougou, the trnL-trnF sequences were completely identical (data not shown).

4. Discussion

4.1. Morphological Characterization

The results of the morphological characterization indicated some variability among the sampled Z. zanthoxyloides populations. The height of the trunk was different in the three sites. The tallest trees were found in Sidéradougou, medium height was found in Niangoloko, and Orodara had trees of a small stunted size. Potential causes for these differences could be variations in the environmental conditions where these plants live or anthropogenic factors, such as regular cutting of the species for medicinal purposes or for collecting firewood. In fact, human action (cutting and bush fires) can affect the growth of the species, as stated by Schwartz & Caro [34]. In Orodara, we find arid clay soil, while Sidéradougou and Niangoloko have black soil with a high sand content, which could explain why the trees grow taller at the latter sites. Our results for trunk diameter are very similar, with the smallest measurements in Orodara (0.42 m), followed by Niangoloko (0.45 m), and the biggest trunks in Sidéradougou have a diameter of about 0.6 m. We can thus confirm the measurements of Eyog Matig et al. [35], who have shown that small and large forms of this species exist. The trunk diameter of 0.5 m, reported by Iwu [7], is approximately the same as what we found at Niangoloko. Another peculiarity of the Orodara trees is the increased number of stems, but it is not clear whether this is a result of frequent cutting or a natural phenomenon.
For the leaves, we determined an average size of about 17.47 cm, much larger than the 12 cm mentioned by Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim [10]. The seed diameters from Sidéradougou and Orodora were significantly larger than the ones found in Niangoloko. In general, the seed width is in accordance with the results of Perichet et al. [3], who found a similar size for Z. zanthoxyloides seeds from Burkina Faso (around 3 mm). Concerning the hundred-seed weight, our results vary between 2.01 and 2.78 g, which is higher than the general weight of the species mentioned by Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim [10] who found a weight between 1.59 and 1.81 g in the West African region. Possible explanations for these differences may be the temperature, locations, soil thickness, and forest age that would influence species development [36].
Our results from a spectroscopy study of the species indicated that the stem barks of Z. zanthoxyloides from Orodara have phytochemical characteristics different from Niangoloko and Sideradougou samples indicated by a closer grouping in the principal component analysis based on the fingerprint region 1800–600 cm−1 [5]. This region includes the absorbed O–H vibration, the C–H deformation in lignin and carbohydrates, the C–H deformation in cellulose and hemicellulose, the C–O stretch in lignin, the C–OC vibration in cellulose and hemicellulose, and the C–O stretch in cellulose and hemicellulose [37].
The multivariate analysis showed that the weight of 100 seeds correlates with the clay content of the soil (up to 30%) and silt (up to 23%). A soil with sand (up to 46%) and a proportion of clay (≤30%) and silt (≤23%) seems to have a positive effect on the height of the trunk. These results suggest that at least some of the morphological variability of Z. zanthoxyloides could be a consequence of the physical parameters of the soil.

4.2. Molecular Characterization

In the four DNA regions analyzed (GBSSI, ITS, psbA-trnH and trnL-trnF), we detected only a few nucleotide substitutions in a subset of the samples. None of these substitutions were shared by two or more trees of the same site. We conclude that these restricted substitutions are individual polymorphisms because they are not shared by two or more individuals of the same site. Thus, there are no hints that the Z. zanthoxyloides populations present in Burkina Faso are diverging into distinct geographic subpopulations. Of course, a numerically extended analysis spanning larger genomic regions and using microsatellites would be necessary in order to exclude any genetic diversity present in the three populations of Z. zanthoxyloides of our study sites. Indeed, using RAPD and ISSR primers, Mehdi et al. [38] found a significant genetic variability between various Zanthoxylum species and within species. Moreover, in the related Z. giletii from Tanzania, a clear haplotype structure could be revealed using the psbA-trnH intergenic spacer [39]. In populations of Z. ailanthoides from Kyushu Island in Japan, six haplotypes and several variations within the GBSSI gene could be detected [28]. One of the reasons why our study does not provide similar results could be the rather close vicinity of our sampling sites, which could favor an active gene flow leading to an admixture of the gene pool. Similarly, Perichet et al. [3] could not detect any molecular difference between samples of Z. zanthoxyloides from Burkina Faso and Ghana.

4.3. Conservation

So far, no adequate conservation measures have been implemented for the species in Burkina Faso. However, due to the pressure of the population using mostly the roots for medicinal purposes (malaria and sickle cell disease), the species needs to be protected and cultivated in nurseries. The results of our morphological and molecular analyses can be used to develop a conservation management plan for wild Z. zanthoxyloides in Burkina Faso. Our limited molecular data suggest that tree populations of Z. zanthoxyloides in Western Burkina have only a very low level of genetic diversity. The rare polymorphisms found do not indicate any genetic differentiation into distinct subpopulations in the three study sites. This would suggest that the variation in morphological traits among different sites is presumably due to different environmental conditions, and seeds or seedlings from all sites can probably be used for ex situ and in situ conservation measures. However, since we cannot exclude the possibility that the provenance of the seeds has an impact on seed germination or seedling growth [40], we recommend choosing young shoots or seeds from all three different provenances for conservation measures. The culture can be done in botanical gardens in pots containing soils of the different localities or clay–sand mixes. Seed can be stored in liquid nitrogen for several years [41]. To germinate the orthodox seeds, special treatment (scarifying the seeds with sand or sulfuric acid) is crucial to achieving good germination rates [40]. In addition, in vitro production by germinating the seeds in a suitable culture medium [17] can be used for small-scale production but is not an option for mass production by local communities.
Seedlings should be planted in the wet season in open areas [42] of shrub or tree savannas. To increase the acceptance and thus the survival rate of the trees, the management of these seedlings (nurseries, botanical gardens, and target places for safeguarding) should be entrusted to the local communities and especially those involved in traditional medicine, which are likely to harvest Z. zanthoxyloides. This should also include financial support for the very poor local communities in order to convince them to actively contribute to the conservation of the species.

5. Conclusions

The assessment of morphological characteristics showed diversity within the species according to different geographic sites in Southwestern Burkina Faso. However, our genetic analysis with a limited sampling did not reveal a distinct molecular diversity in the analyzed DNA regions. Whether the differences in morphological traits are caused by different environmental conditions, e.g. soil parameters, needs further testing and common-garden experiments. The conservation strategy for the species should include establishing nurseries and seed banks of Z. zanthoxyloides from various sites in Burkina Faso. These conservation measures should involve the local population and the actors of traditional medicine, e.g., by local management of nurseries and plantations in the selected reforestation sites.

Author Contributions

L.O. recorded morphological data, collected samples for molecular analysis, and drafted the manuscript. D.F. performed molecular analysis, reviewed the first draft, and gave final approval of the version to be published. H.S. supervised and financed the molecular analysis at TUM, reviewed the first draft, and gave final approval of the version to be published. M.K. identified the sampling sites, supervised and financed the morphological studies, reviewed all drafts, and gave final approval of the version to be published.

Funding

This study has not received any organization funding.

Acknowledgments

We thank Josef Endl, Weilheim, Germany, for many helpful corrections and comments. We are grateful to Alina Höwener (TUM) for laboratory assistance.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

References

  1. Fuchs, D. Evaluation of the genetic diversity in Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides combined with a phylogenetic and biogeographic study of the genus Zanthoxylum. Master’s Thesis, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany, 2018, unpublished work. [Google Scholar]
  2. Tan, S.; Guo, T.; Tang, X.; Song, T.; Wang, Y. Chemical constituents of Zanthoxylum armatum. II. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2018, 54, 869–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Perichet, C.; Philippe, F.; Dupouyet, A.; Marteaux, B.; Schnaebele, N.; Dubrulle, N.; Lavoine-Hanneguelle, S.; Giraud, N. Study of some Zanthoxylum species by chemical and DNA analysis approaches. Chem. Biodivers. 2018, 15, e1800251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Arbonnier, M. Trees, Shrubs and Lianas of West African Dry Zones; Paris; Margraf Publishers: Weikersheim, Germany, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  5. Ouédraogo, L.; Nacoulma, A.P.; Compaoré, M.; Lagnika, L.; Kiendrebeogo, M. Stem bark of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloïdes a possible substitute of root bark for the conservation of the species in Burkina Faso. African J. Biotechnol. 2019, 18, 197–205. [Google Scholar]
  6. Famobuwa, O.; Adekunbi, E.; Akinnifesi, T.; Hassan, G. In vitro Antioxidant and Anti-bacterial Properties of a Contraceptive Herbal Mixture of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides L. (Rutaceae), Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) and Abrus precatorius L. (Leguminosae). J. Adv. Med. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 7, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Iwu, M.M. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants; CRC Press Inc.: London, UK, 1993. [Google Scholar]
  8. Kakpo, S. Caractéristiques Structurales et écologiques des forêts de Bonou et d’Itchèdè au sud est du Bénin; The University of Abomey-Calavi: Cotonou, Benin, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  9. Bonnet, P.; Arbonnier, M. Ligneux du Sahel: Outil Graphique d’identification; Quae.: Versailles, France, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  10. Schmelzer, G.; Gurib-Fakim, A. Ressources Végétales de L’Afrique Tropicale 11(2). Plante Médicinale 2; Fondation PROTA: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  11. Nacoulma, O.G. Plantes médicinales et Pratiques médicales traditionnelles au Burkina Faso: cas du plateau central. Ph.D. Thesis, Université de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 1996. [Google Scholar]
  12. Guendéhou, F.; Djossa, B.A.; Kènou, C.; Assogbadjo, C. Review of Studies on Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (L.): availability and ethnomedical, phytochemical, pharmacological uses. Sch. J. Res. Agric. Biol. 2018, 3, 244–254. [Google Scholar]
  13. Nikiema, J.-B.; Ouattara, B.; Semde, R.; Djierro, K.; Compaore, M.; Guissou, I.P.; Kasilo, O.M. Promotion de la médicine traditionnelle du Burkina Faso: Essai de développement d’un médicament antidrépanocytose, le FACA. African Heal. Monit. 2010, 13, 64–67. [Google Scholar]
  14. Ouattara, B.; Angenot, L.; Guissou, P.; Fondu, P.; Dubois, J.; Frédérich, M.; Jansen, O.; van Heugen, J.C.; Wauters, J.N. LC/MS/NMR analysis of isomeric divanilloylquinic acids from the root bark of Fagara zanthoxyloides L. Phytochemistry 2004, 65, 1145–1151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Ouattara, B.; Jansen, O.; Angenot, L.; Guissou, I.P.; Frédérich, M.; Fondu, P.; Tits, M. Antisickling properties of divanilloylquinic acids isolated from Fagara zanthoxyloides L. (Rutaceae). Phytomedecine 2009, 16, 125–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. IUCN. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-1. 2019. Available online: http://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed on 16 July 2019).
  17. Compaoré, M.; Roland, M.N.T.; Zerbo, P.; Karama, I.; Traoré, O.; Méda, A.L.; Kiendrebeogo, M.; Novak, J. Availability evaluation of twelve antimalarial medicinal plants from western regions of Burkina Faso. J. Dis. Med. Plants 2018, 4, 80–88. [Google Scholar]
  18. Etsè, K.D.; Aïdam, A.V.; de Souza, C.; Crêche, J.; Lanoue, A. In vitro propagation of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides L., an endangered African medicinal plant. Acta Bot. Gall. 2011, 158, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Traoré, L.; Ouédraogo, A.; Thombiano, A. Perceptions, usages et vulnérabilité des ressources végétales ligneuses dans le Sud-Ouest du Burkina Faso. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sc. 2011, 5, 258–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Mansfelds, R. Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural Crops: (Except Ornamentals); Springer Sciences & Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2001; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
  21. Neya, T.; Daboue, E.; Neya, O.; Ouedraogo, I.; Sena, K.Y. Tolerance à la dessiccation des semences de Parinari curatellifolia planch. ex benth, Vitex doniana Sweet et Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (L.) Watermann au Burkina Faso. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2017, 11, 2730–2744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Ouôba, P.; Boussim, J.; Guinko, S. Le potentiel fruitier de la forêt classée de Niangoloko au Burkina Faso. Fruits 2005, 61, 71–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Ouôba, P. Fonctions écologiques et potentialités agroforestières de Maranthes polyandra [(Benth.)Prance] dans la Forêt Classée de Niangoloko. Bachelor’s Thesis, Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  24. Chehade, A.; Chalak, L.; Elbitar, A.; Cosson, P.; Zanetto, A.; Dirlewanger, E. Caractérisation préliminaire morphologique et moléculaire de clones de cerisier cultivés au Liban (Prunus avium L.). Leban. Sci. J. 2005, 6, 29–40. [Google Scholar]
  25. Eyog-Matig, O.; Gaoué, O.G.; Obel-Lawson, E. (Eds.) Development of Appropriate Conservation Strategies for African Forest Trees Identified as Priority Species by SAFORGEN Member Countries; International Plant Genetic Resources Institute: Nairobi, Kenya, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  26. Appelhans, M.S.; Reichelt, N.; Groppo, M.; Paetzold, C.; Wen, J. Phylogeny and biogeography of the pantropical genus Zanthoxylum and its closest relatives in the proto-Rutaceae group (Rutaceae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2018, 126, 31–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Kim, Y.; Shin, J.; Cho, S.; Hwang, Y.; Choi, C. Species-specific InDel markers for authentication of the Korean herbs Zanthoxylum schinifolium and Zanthoxylum piperitum. BioRxiv 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kamiya, K.; Moritsuka, E.; Yoshida, T.; Yahara, T.; Tachida, H. High population differentiation and unusual haplotype structure in a shade-intolerant pioneer tree species, Zanthoxylum ailanthoides (Rutaceae) revealed by analysis of DNA polymorphism at four nuclear loci. Mol. Ecol. 2008, 17, 2329–2338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Taberlet, P.; Gielly, L.; Pautou, G.; Bouvet, J. Universal primers for amplification of three non-coding regions of chloroplast DNA. Plant Mol. Biol. 1991, 17, 11051109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Balthazar, M.V.; Endress, P.K.; Qiu, L.-Y. Phylogenetic relationships in Buxaceae based on nuclear internal transcribed spacers and plastid ndhF sequences. Int. J. Plant Sci. 2000, 161, 785–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Sang, T.; Crawford, D.J.; Stuessy, T.F. Chloroplast DNA phylogeny reticulate evolution, and Biogeography of Paeonia ( Paeoniaceae). Am. J. Bot. 1997, 84, 1120–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Tate, J.A.; Simpson, B.B. Paraphyly of Tarasa (Malvaceae) and diverse origins of the polyploid species. Syst. Bot. 2003, 28, 723–737. [Google Scholar]
  33. Edgar, R.C. MUSCLE: Multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004, 32, 1792–1797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Schwartz, M.W.; Caro, T.M. Effect of selective logging on tree and understory regeneration in miombo woodland in western Tanzania. Afr. J. Ecol. 2003, 41, 75–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Eyog Matig, O.; Ndoye, O.; Kengue, J.; Awono, A. Les Fruitiers Forestiers Comestibles du Cameroun; IPGRI: Rome, Italy, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  36. Yang, Y.; Watanabe, M.; Li, F.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, W.; Zhai, J. Factors affecting forest growth and possible effects of climate change in the Taihang Mountains, northern China. Forestry 2006, 79, 135–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Gupta, B.S.; Jelle, B.P.; Hovde, P.J.; Gao, T. Wood facade materials ageing analysis by FTIR spectroscopy. Constr. Mater. 2015, 168, 219–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Medhi, K.; Sarmah, D.; Deka, M.; Bhau, B. High gene flow and genetic diversity in three economically important Zanthoxylum spp. of Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone of NE India using molecular markers. Meta Gene 2014, 2, 706–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Jump, A.S.; Carr, M.; Ahrends, A.; Marchant, R. Genetic divergence during long-term isolation in highly diverse populations of tropical trees across the Eastern Arc mountains of Tanzania. Biotropica 2014, 46, 565–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Sam, J.B. Etude de L’effet de Prétraitement sur la Germination et la Croissance de Zanthoxylum Zanthoxyloides (L.) Zepernick & Timler de Quatre Provenances en Pépinère; École nationale des eaux et forêts: Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  41. FAO. Conservation ex situ de Pollen et de Graines, et de Cultures in vitro de Plantes Ligneuses Perennes; Etude FAO: Rome, Italy, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  42. Douh, C. Rôle de la banque de graines du sol dans la régénération des forêts denses humides d’Afrique centrale. Ph.D. Thesis, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium, 2018. [Google Scholar]
Plants 08 00353 g001 550
Figure 1. Distribution of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides in West Africa (adapted from Bonnet and Arbonnier [9]).
Figure 1. Distribution of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides in West Africa (adapted from Bonnet and Arbonnier [9]).
Plants 08 00353 g001
Plants 08 00353 g002 550
Figure 2. Sampling sites in the Southwest of Burkina Faso [5].
Figure 2. Sampling sites in the Southwest of Burkina Faso [5].
Plants 08 00353 g002
Plants 08 00353 g003 550
Figure 3. View of Z. zanthoxyloides stems and trunk from Orodara (A), Niangoloko (B), and Sidéradougou (C) evaluated in the same seasonal period.
Figure 3. View of Z. zanthoxyloides stems and trunk from Orodara (A), Niangoloko (B), and Sidéradougou (C) evaluated in the same seasonal period.
Plants 08 00353 g003
Plants 08 00353 g004 550
Figure 4. Seeds of Z. zanthoxyloides from Orodara (A), Niangoloko (B), and Sidéradougou (C).
Figure 4. Seeds of Z. zanthoxyloides from Orodara (A), Niangoloko (B), and Sidéradougou (C).
Plants 08 00353 g004
Plants 08 00353 g005 550
Figure 5. Principal Component Analysis based on plant morphology and soil physical traits.
Figure 5. Principal Component Analysis based on plant morphology and soil physical traits.
Plants 08 00353 g005
Plants 08 00353 g006 550
Figure 6. GBSSI alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Figure 6. GBSSI alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Plants 08 00353 g006
Plants 08 00353 g007 550
Figure 7. ITS alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Figure 7. ITS alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Plants 08 00353 g007
Plants 08 00353 g008 550
Figure 8. psbA-trnH alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Figure 8. psbA-trnH alignment of Z. zanthoxyloides (partly).
Plants 08 00353 g008
Table
Table 1. Characteristics of the sampling sites.
Table 1. Characteristics of the sampling sites.
SiteGeographic Coordinates (Recorded with GPS)Altitude in m a.s.l. (Recorded with GPS)Average Annual Precipitation from 2016–2017 (mm)
(from the National Agency of Meteorology, Burkina Faso)		Average Annual Temperature 2017 (°C)
from (mm)
(from the National Agency of Meteorology, Burkina Faso)		Soil Type from [5]
Niangoloko30 P 0289150
UTM 1134950		342–353979.5526–31sand
Sidéra
dougou		30P 0368450
UTM 1169500		320–343771.526–31sand
Orodara30 P 0291500
UTM 1217000		546–560980.326–32clay
Table
Table 2. Physical parameters of soil samples from the study sites.
Table 2. Physical parameters of soil samples from the study sites.
SiteDepth (cm)% Clay% Silt% Sand
Niangoloko0–256.123.4970.41
25.1–5015.22559.8
50.1–10023.5319.6156.86
Sidéradougou0–2510.222.767.1
25.1–5016.425.258.4
50.1–10026.419.554.1
Orodara0–256325.811.2
25.1–5062.7527.459.8
50.1–10049.619.6130.79
Table
Table 3. Primers used for PCR amplification.
Table 3. Primers used for PCR amplification.
PrimersSequence (All Given in Orientation 5’-3’)References
trnLcCGA AAT CGG TAG ACG CTA CG[29]
trnLdGGG GAT AGA GGG ACT TGA AC[29]
trnLFeGGT TCA AGT CCC TCT ATC CC[29]
trnLFfATT TGA ACT GGT GAC ACG AG[29]
ITS-F1CCT GCC CTT TGT ACA CAC C[30]
ITS-F2TCT CGG CAA CGG ATA TCT CG[30]
ITS-R1GCT TCT NCA GAC TAC AAT TC[30]
ITS-R2CGT TCA AAG ACT CGA TGG TTC[30]
psbAGTT ATG CAT GAA CGT AAT GCT C[31]
trnHCGC GCA TGG TGG ATT CAC AAT CC[32]
GBSSI f156GCT CCT CGC TAT GAC CAG TA[28]
GBSSI r642ACT CAA CAC CTT TAT CTT CC[28]
Table
Table 4. Tree parameters.
Table 4. Tree parameters.
SiteTrunk Height (cm)Diameter of Trunk C50Number of Stems Per Feet
Sidéradougou (24)203.7 ± 57.61 a60.67 ±13,40 a1.00 ± 0.000 b
Niangoloko (24)151.2 ± 50.58 b45.63 ± 27.5 b1.25 ± 0.53 b
Orodara (24)106.5 ± 50.77 c42.04 ± 21.75 b2.71 ± 1.3 a
Min27181
Max3001335
Mean153.849.441.65
SqR65.8722.761.10
P-Value<0.00010.009<0.0001
SignificanceHSSHS
The averages followed by the same lower case letter in each column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold according to the Newman–Keuls test. Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum. SqR = Standard deviation. HS = Highly significant, S = Significant. The means were calculated from 72 trees.
Table
Table 5. Leaf, inflorescence, and seed parameters.
Table 5. Leaf, inflorescence, and seed parameters.
SiteLeaf Length (cm)Leaf Width (cm)Petiole Length (cm)Inflorescence Length (cm)Inflorescence
Width (cm)		Seed Diameter (mm)Hundred Seed Weight (g)
Sidéradougou (24)18.92 ± 4.11 a11.4 ± 2.69 a4.27 ± 1.01 a8.37 ± 2.2 a2.91 ± 0.88 a3.3 ± 0.28 a2.21 ± 0.32 b
Niangoloko (24)17.02 ± 2.89 ab11.2 ± 2.39 a4.25 ± 1.15 a5.37 ± 1.68 b2.63 ± 0.51 a3.05 ± 0.07b2.01 ± 0.09 c
Orodara (24)16.48 ± 2.77 b11,08 ± 1.76 a3.48 ± 0.71 b8.83 ± 2.3 a3.16 ± 0.88 a3.42 ± 0.32 a2.78 ± 0.34 a
Min10723231.8
Max2518613643.5
Mean17.4711.2247.552.93.252.34
SqR3.432.261.032.570.80.290.43
P-Value0.030.8910.008<0.00010.074<0.0001<0.0001
SignificanceSNSSHSNSHSHS
The averages followed by the same lower letter in each column are not significantly different at the 5% threshold after the Newman–Keuls test. Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum. SqR = Standard deviation. HS = Highly significant, S = Significant, NS = non-significant. The total number of trees for the calculation of the mean was 72.
Table
Table 6. Phenology parameters.
Table 6. Phenology parameters.
SiteFlowering TimeFruiting Time
May–JulyAugust–OctoberNovemer–JaneJuly–SeptemberOctober–DecemberJane–March
Sidéradougou41284128
Niangoloko91239123
Orodara26166616
Total number of trees per season153027153027
Percentage (%)20.8341.6737.520.8341.6737.5
Table
Table 7. Correlation between morphological traits and physical parameters of soil.
Table 7. Correlation between morphological traits and physical parameters of soil.
VariablesThDtNsfLfLwPlHswSdIlIw%Cl%SiSa
Th1
Dt0.31071
Nsf−0.2741−0.23961
Ll0.24190.1755−0.05651
Lw0.14490.24120.03700.62491
Pl0.50910.2148−0.19820.37060.41321
Hsw−0.1665−0.04050.41800.03880.1620−0.08381
Sd0.0430−0.00450.30040.00230.0382−0.10160.47331
Il0.00820.19380.1903−0.03730.0203−0.14890.40150.40791
Iw−0.09190.12670.1041−0.05640.0642−0.06840.17330.16590.47071
%Cl−0.4925−0.21640.6756−0.1931−0.0416−0.35960.75390.42980.38800.24191
%Si−0.5541−0.26940.6880−0.2372−0.0488−0.35440.70730.35410.28690.20960.97931
%Sa0.49430.2179−0.67620.19430.04180.3596−0.7531−0.4281−0.3856−0.2412−1.0000−0.98041
Values in bold are significant for P < 0,05. Th: Trunk height, Dt: Diameter of trunk, Nsf: Number of stems per feet, Ll: Leaf length, Lw: Leaf width, Pl: Petiole length, Hsw: Hundred seed weight, Sd: Seed diameter, Il: Inflorescence length, Iw: Inflorescence width, %: Proportion in percentage, Cl: Clay, Si: Silt, Sa: Sand.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ouédraogo, L.; Fuchs, D.; Schaefer, H.; Kiendrebeogo, M. Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Rutaceae) from Burkina Faso. Plants 2019, 8, 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8090353

AMA Style

Ouédraogo L, Fuchs D, Schaefer H, Kiendrebeogo M. Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Rutaceae) from Burkina Faso. Plants. 2019; 8(9):353. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8090353

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ouédraogo, Lassané, Dominik Fuchs, Hanno Schaefer, and Martin Kiendrebeogo. 2019. "Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Rutaceae) from Burkina Faso" Plants 8, no. 9: 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8090353

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop