Different Types of Glucocorticoids to Evaluate Stress and Welfare in Animals and Humans: General Concepts and Examples of Combined Use
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. General Characteristics of the Main Glucocorticoids
3. Measurement
- (1)
- Those using techniques based on the reaction of an antibody with the analyte to be measured, such as radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme immunoassay (EIA), chemiluminescence, and, more recently, bead-based luminescent amplification assays (AlphaLISA). RIA assays are currently used with less frequency due to the need of special facilities and the radioactive nature of some components.
- (2)
4. Studies Where Cortisol and Cortisone Were Measured in Combination
4.1. Studies on Animals
4.1.1. Studies on Pigs
4.1.2. Studies on other Species
4.2. Studies on Humans
5. Studies Where Cortisol and Corticosterone Were Measured in Combination
5.1. Studies on Animals
5.1.1. Studies on Cows
5.1.2. Studies on Birds
5.1.3. Studies on Laboratory Rodents
5.1.4. Studies on Other Species
5.2. Studies on Humans
6. Studies Where Total Steroids and Selected Glucocorticoids Were Measured in Combination
6.1. Studies on Cortisol-Dominant Species
6.2. Studies on Corticosterone-Dominant Species
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cortisol | Cortisone | Corticosterone | |
---|---|---|---|
Formula | 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [17] 1 | 17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocorticosterone [18] 2 | 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [19] 3 |
Structural differences | An extra hydroxyl group attached to the 17th carbon [20]. | A ketone group attached to the 17th carbon [21]. | No extra hydroxyl group on the 17th carbon [20]. |
Metabolism | Synthesised from pregnenolone in adrenal gland. Inactivated mainly in the kidney by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) type 2 into cortisone [22,23]. | Transformation in the liver, lungs, ovaries, and central nervous system by 11β-HSD type 1 into cortisol [24]. | Derived from pregnenolone in adrenal gland [19]. |
Activity | Active molecule [25] | Inactive molecule | Active molecule |
Half-life | In plasma: 66 min In tissues: 12 h [26,27] | In plasma: 90 min [21] | In plasma: 60–90 min [28] |
Predominant species | It is the main glucocorticoid in most mammals [29] | Same species as cortisol | It is the main glucocorticoid in rats, mice, birds, and reptiles, due to a lack of the enzyme 17-α hydroxylase [9] |
Analyte | Analytical Method | Reference |
---|---|---|
Cortisol | EIA | [34,39,40] |
RIA | [41,42] | |
Chemiluminescence | [43] | |
AlphaLISA | [44] | |
HPLC | [35,36] | |
LC-MS/MS | [37,38] | |
Cortisone | AlphaLISA | [44] |
UHPLC-MS/MS | [45,46] | |
LC-MS/MS | [47] | |
LC-MS3 | [48,49] | |
Corticosterone | EIA | [50,51] |
RIA | [52,53] | |
Total steroids | EIA | [54,55,56] |
RIA | [57,58] |
Species | Study | Cohort | Analytical Method | Stressor | Matrix | Values (Plasma/Saliva: ng/mL; Hair: pg/mg; Water-Borne: ng/L−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Metabolite | Before Stressor | After Stressor | ||||||
Pig | [63] | 14 | LC-MS/MS | Nasal snare | Saliva (Sl) Plasma (P) | Cortisol | Sl: 0.06–0.25 * P: 100 * | Sl: 1–4 * P: 60–140 * |
Cortisone | Sl: 0.01–0.125 * P: 19 * | Sl: 0.25-1 * P: 17–33 * | ||||||
[44] | 32 | AlphaLISA | Farrowing | Hair | Cortisol | 31.9 | 33.7 | |
Cortisone | 119.9 | 527.2 | ||||||
[62] | 25 | LC-MS/MS | Catheterisation | Serum (S) | Cortisol | 42.8 | 71 | |
Cortisone | 1.8 | 19 | ||||||
Human | [71] | 197 | LC/MS | Emotional stress | Hair | Cortisol | 3.2 | 3.7 |
Cortisone | 5.9 | 7.4 | ||||||
[49] | 239 | HPLC | Pregnancy | Hair | Cortisol | ND | 3.75 | |
Cortisone | ND | 14 | ||||||
[72] | 229 | LC/MS | Ocean-going fishing 1–3 months | Hair | Cortisol | 12.8 | 10.5 | |
Cortisone | 3.3 | 4.9 | ||||||
[67] | 67 | LC-MS/MS | Trier Social Stress Test | Saliva Serum | Cortisol | S: 2.2 Sl: 0.7 | S: 17.5 Sl: 0.41 | |
Cortisone | 4.2 | Sl: 9 | ||||||
[70] | 12 | EIA (cortisol) Chemiluminescence (cortisone) | GXT (morning) | Plasma Saliva | Cortisol | P: 170 Sl: 2.6 | P: 250 Sl: 4.9 | |
Cortisone | P: 37.5 Sl: 13.6 | P: 72.1 Sl: 21.1 | ||||||
Others species | [64] | 120 | LC-MS/MS | Air exposure | Plasma | Cortisol | 10 * | 55 * |
Cortisone | 10 * | 40 * | ||||||
[65] | 12 | RIA | Air exposure | Water-borne | Cortisol | 1.1 | 25.2 | |
Cortisone | 0.7 | 8 * | ||||||
[66] | 24 | EIA | Bacterial inoculation | Hair | Cortisol | 9 * | 2 * | |
Cortisone | 100 * | 170 * |
Species | Study | Cohort (n) | Analytical Method | Stressor | Matrix | Values (Plasma/Saliva: ng/mL; Faces/Tissues: ng/g; Feathers: ng/g; Water-Borne: pg/g) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Metabolite | Before Stressor | After Stressor | ||||||
Cow | [78] | 18 | IDMS (Isotope dilution and spectrophotometry) | Injection of ACTH | Serum | Cortisol | 3–6 | 4.1–8.9 |
Corticosterone | 2.4–3.5 | 3–4.1 | ||||||
[79] | 10 | RIA (cortisol) EIA (corticosterone) | LPS infection | Plasma (P) | Cortisol | 0.5 | 18 | |
Corticosterone | 0.4 | 2.8 | ||||||
Birds | [80] | LC-MS/MS | Moult | Plasma Feathers (F) | Cortisol | P: 0.17 | P: 0 F: 4.4–75.5 | |
Corticosterone | P: 8.6 | P: 13–17 F: 4.1–372.9 | ||||||
[81] | 70 | EIA (cortisol) RIA (corticosterone) | Restraining (P10) | Plasma Tissues (T) | Cortisol | P: 0.9 * T: 0.5–1.5 * | P: 1.5 * T: 1–2.2 * | |
Corticosterone | P: 11 * T: 2–8 * | P: 30 * T: 5–20 * | ||||||
Rodents | [88] | Not specified | RIA | Acute (A): supine restraint Chronic (C): cold restraint (2–4/day) | Plasma | Cortisol | 4 * | A: 60 * C: 15 * |
Corticosterone | 12 * | A: 65 * C: 15 * | ||||||
[87] | 6 | RIA (cortisol) EIA (corticosterone) | Acute: restraint, forced swimming Chronic: restraint | Serum | Cortisol | 8–14 * | A: 30–35 * C: 15–30 * | |
Corticosterone | 40–160 * | A: 800–1200 * C: 200–1000 * | ||||||
Others species | [90] | 17 tadpoles | EIA | ACTH injection | Water-borne | Cortisol | 4–5 * | 3–3.5 * |
Corticosterone | 100–180 * | 180–350 * | ||||||
Human | [70] | 12 | EIA | Graded exercise test | Plasma | Cortisol | 170 * | 250 * |
Corticosterone | 14 * | 47 * |
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Botía, M.; Escribano, D.; Martínez-Subiela, S.; Tvarijonaviciute, A.; Tecles, F.; López-Arjona, M.; Cerón, J.J. Different Types of Glucocorticoids to Evaluate Stress and Welfare in Animals and Humans: General Concepts and Examples of Combined Use. Metabolites 2023, 13, 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13010106
Botía M, Escribano D, Martínez-Subiela S, Tvarijonaviciute A, Tecles F, López-Arjona M, Cerón JJ. Different Types of Glucocorticoids to Evaluate Stress and Welfare in Animals and Humans: General Concepts and Examples of Combined Use. Metabolites. 2023; 13(1):106. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13010106
Chicago/Turabian StyleBotía, María, Damián Escribano, Silvia Martínez-Subiela, Asta Tvarijonaviciute, Fernando Tecles, Marina López-Arjona, and José J. Cerón. 2023. "Different Types of Glucocorticoids to Evaluate Stress and Welfare in Animals and Humans: General Concepts and Examples of Combined Use" Metabolites 13, no. 1: 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13010106