3.1. The Modern Socio-Economic Situation of the Indigenous Minorities of the North
According to the 2010 census, the number of indigenous minorities of the North in the republic is 39,936 people, including 36,079 people—Evenks and Evens; their share in the republic is 90.3%, Dolgans, Chukchi and Yukagirs—9.7%.
Table 1 shows the ethnic composition of the indigenous population for 1970–2010.
The Evenks are settled throughout the territory of the republic; the Evens mainly live in the Arctic, North-East and Central Yakutia. The crisis state of most traditional types of economic activity has led to the aggravation of social problems. The average wages in the Arctic regions in 2013 amounted to 39.9 thousand rubles, which is 14.3% lower than the level prevailing in the republic (46.5 thousand rubles). The unemployment rate in most uluses exceeds the national average (7.4%) [
59]. The number of workers employed in reindeer husbandry is declining.
The Arctic and northern territories of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are characterized by a continuing migration outflow of the population, a high level of morbidity and a decrease in the quality of educational and medical services. The most acute problems are under development of social infrastructure, dilapidation and accident rate of social facilities. To assess the dependence of the state of health on the social environment, statistical medical and demographic indicators for tuberculosis were analyzed using a quantitative indicator: the factor intensity index (IFI). A ranked series of tuberculosis prevalence among the population of the republic in ascending order of indicators: morbidity (newly diagnosed patients) and morbidity (registered patients), are presented in
Table 2 and
Table 3 [
31].
The high incidence of tuberculosis among the uluses of the republic is typical for five Arctic regions, where mainly indigenous peoples live: Anabarsky, Verkhoyansky, Allaikhovsky, Abyisky, Eveno-Bytantaysky. In terms of prevalence (
Table 3), a high level of susceptibility is also characteristic of five Arctic regions: Allaikhovsky, Ust-Yansky, Nizhnekolymsky, Oleneksky, Anabarsky and for the city of Yakutsk.
Analysis of the prevalence of the population in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) with a socially significant infectious disease, tuberculosis, indicates a low level of the social environment in the Arctic uluses. For the city of Yakutsk, many factors affect the health of the population: a low level of improvement of the city, a deterioration of the environmental situation, an increase in the number of migrants from other countries and regions of Russia as well as intraregional unemployed migrants, which increase the load on the city infrastructure and increase the incidence of infectious diseases.
Official statistics do not take into account the morbidity of the population by ethnic composition, and it is not possible to assess the state of health according to the statistics of the indigenous peoples of the North in this period. It can only be assumed that the populations of the indigenous peoples of the North may be vulnerable to various external influences. According to the results of molecular genetic studies, the indigenous population of Yakutia (Evenks, Evens and Yakuts) living in the territories of the mining industry, according to the data of the paternal and maternal lines, as well as some autosomal loci, is characterized by a relatively low genetic diversity in comparison with other East Eurasian populations [
60,
61,
62,
63]. Small numbers, relative isolation and low genetic diversity can probably have a negative effect under the action of technogenic pollution, since the action of such exogenous factors can lead to a decrease in the natural adaptation mechanisms of the population.
As indicated above, reindeer herding is the main ethno-preserving industry of the indigenous peoples of the North. At present, the catastrophic reduction in the number of reindeer continues and in 2016 it amounted to 11,208 reindeer in the republic, i.e., it decreased by 33.9 times compared to 1981 (
Table 4). If in 2001 the districts had livestock of more than 500 deer and there were 20, then in 2016 there were only 6 of them in the republic [
30].
The main reasons for the decline in reindeer husbandry were: (a) the republic was not interested in the development of reindeer husbandry in the Yakut regions, where the local population has long been engaged in cattle breeding and horse breeding; (b) the indigenous peoples of the North were engaged in reindeer husbandry, which gradually assimilated; accordingly, there were no real reindeer herders who knew the methods of reindeer husbandry in the taiga zone [
6].
3.4. Discussion
According to the Strategy of Socio-Economic Development of the Republic until 2030 with a vision for 2050, one of the tasks of preserving and protecting the indigenous habitat of indigenous peoples is guaranteed compliance with the participation of industrial companies in the socio-economic development of territories inhabited by indigenous peoples. Currently, many researchers are raising the question of sharing the benefits from the development of mineral deposits at the territories of traditional nature management between industrialists and indigenous peoples [
67,
68,
69].
The Arctic tundra-hunting-reindeer breeding zone includes five administrative districts (Allaikhovsky, Anabarsky, Bulunsky, Nizhnekolymsky, Ust-Yansky) and is a large reindeer herding region of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The Arctic is of strategic value today from the point of view of national security and economic development of the state. These lands have rich mineral and raw material potential and are attractive for investment projects at the same time; they are distinguished by the fragility of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts.
The state of the environment in the Arctic regions was assessed as satisfactory [
57]. At present, diamonds and gold are mined in the Allaikhovsky and Bulunsky regions, tin is mined in Ust-Yansky, and the fishing industry is developed in the Allaikhovsky and Nizhnekolymsky regions. The development of the oil and gas industry is planned in the future.
In the ethnological expertise in 2015, materials were considered on complex geological and geophysical works for the search for oil and gas fields and their subsequent exploitation in the territories of Bulunsky and Anabarsky regions. Four tribal communities and two municipal unitary enterprises will be affected by the work on the territory of the Anabar region. On the territory of Bulunsky region—one municipal unitary enterprise and one individual enterprise.
The project received a positive opinion of the expert commission of ethnological expertise with a recommendation to correct it according the experts’ comments during ethno-ecological monitoring.
The North-Western northern taiga hunting and reindeer herding zone includes the Oleneksky and Zhigansky districts. Economic specialization: reindeer husbandry, fur trade and fishing. The vulnerability of natural complexes to technogenic impacts is high. The state of the environment was assessed as favorable by a set of factors. [
57]. At present, there is a diamond mining enterprise operating in the region (Almazy Anabara Open Joint Stock Company); in the near future there are plans to expand diamond production with the development of the following deposits:
development of the Verkhne-Munskoye diamond deposit, 2016;
development of an alluvial diamond deposit in the area “r. Big Kuonamka and Talakhtah “, 2016;
mining operations in the area of Small Kuonamka with the Maspaki tributary for the development of diamond placers, 2016.
When considering the design documentation in the ethnological expertise, a lot of questions and comments from experts were raised by the project for the development of the Verkhne-Munskoye deposit. The plot of land for the construction and operation of the deposit is a zone of absolute peace in the natural republican reserve, “Beke”. The expert commission in the first consideration of the materials recommended finalizing the assessment of the impact on the ethnological environment (AIEE). As a result of finalizing of the materials, the project received a positive opinion from the ethnological commission.
The North-Eastern lacustrine-taiga reindeer-herding-cattle-breeding zone includes three administrative regions: Abyisky, Verkhnekolymsky, Srednekolymsky. In the economic specialization of the region, the leading role belongs to animal husbandry and herd horse breeding, subordinate to hunting and fishing, as well as reindeer husbandry. Verkhnekolymsky ulus is an old mining region: here in 1936, with the development of a coal mine, the mining industry began to develop for the first time in republic. Currently, there are small mining enterprises in the region.
The state of the environment as a whole in the zone is satisfactory. However, the state of health of the population of the Kolyma regions of republic raises concerns: in Srednekolymsk there was an increased level (according to the integral assessment), in Verkhnekolymsk—an increased level of morbidity with malignant neoplasms, which, apparently, is associated not only with local but also transboundary pollution of the river. Kolyma is in the upper reaches and large-scale gold mining is carried out there. There are no new projects for industrial development of territories of traditional nature management.
The North-Eastern mountain taiga reindeer-horse-breeding-cattle breeding zone unites five administrative districts: Verkhoyansk, Momsky, Oymyakonsky, Ust-Maisky and Eveno-Bytantaysky. The zone represents a vast mountainous country and is distinguished by the severity of the climate, where the “paradoxes” of the nature of Yakutia are most pronounced: the Cold Pole of the Northern Hemisphere is located here, the steppes are widespread beyond the Arctic Circle and “clean” (northern version of mountain subalpine meadows) in the highlands. The vulnerability of natural complexes to technogenic impacts is relatively high.
Agriculture is represented by meat and dairy cattle breeding, reindeer breeding, herd horse breeding, hunting and animal husbandry. The zone is rich in mineral resources—gold, tin, antimony, lead, zinc, copper, mercury, tungsten, coking and thermal coals and is one of the oldest mining regions. The state of the environment as a whole in the zone is relatively satisfactory. In the ethnological expertise, one investment project was considered: Enrichment plant for processing gold-antimony ore of the Sentachan deposit, 2019. The land plot for the enrichment plant of the deposit is located at the Tabalakhsky territory of traditional nature management of local importance, Verkhoyansk region.
The assessment of the impact on the ethnological environment (AIEE), submitted to the ethnological expertise as part of the project, after the documentation was finalized according to the comments of the experts, received a positive conclusion from the expert commission.
The Western middle taiga horse-breeding zone with the development of the diamond industry unites five administrative districts: Mirninsky, Vilyuisky, Verkhnevilyuisky, Nyurbinsky, Suntarsky, and is located mainly within the middle taiga; only the northern part of the territory is included in the northern taiga. The vulnerability of natural complexes to technogenic impacts is medium.
The western zone is characterized primarily as a diamond mining center. Today Yakutia is the world leader in diamond mining [
70]. The zone is rich in mineral resources: diamonds, natural gas, oil, table salt, zeolites, medicinal mud, etc. During the development of the diamond industry until the 1980s, the state of the environment deteriorated sharply: in some areas, in particular along the tributaries of the river Vilyui—the rivers Irelyakh, Malaya Botuobiya, Daldyn, Markha—it was proposed to identify the status of an ecological disaster zone [
71]. Since the 1980s, the company has undertaken a number of complex engineering and environmental tasks, thanks to which the environmental situation in the company’s area of operation has become more stabilized [
72].
In the ethnological expertise, two investment projects are considered:
Construction of exploration wells No. 581, 582, 583 of the Tas-Yuryakhskoye oil and gas condensate field and winter roads to them. Business entity: Gazprom Geologorazvedka LLC, 2017. Two tribal communities fall under the influence of construction projects: Chuona tribal community and Botuobuya tribal community. The work at the first stage, in view of the numerous comments of the experts, is aimed at a fundamental revision and only after their correction received a positive opinion of the expert commission.
“Construction and operation of industrial facilities on the territory of the Central Block and the Kurungsky license area of the Srednebotuobinsky oil and gas condensate field”. Business entity: Gazprom Geologorazvedka LLC, 2019. The facilities are located on the territory of Botuobuyinsky nasleg municipal district, Mirny district. The work received a positive opinion of the expert committee.
The Central alas-middle taiga agricultural-horse-breeding-cattle-breeding zone unites 10 administrative units. Production specialization—meat and dairy cattle breeding and herd horse breeding. Agriculture and fur trade are also developed here. Indigenous minorities (928 people) live in Kobyayskiy ulus on the territory of Lamynkha nasleg. Almost half of the working residents work in reindeer husbandry. Hunting and fishing resources are of great importance to the local population, which are an important source of income and food. The closed joint stock company “Prognoz”, a Russian mining company, a subsidiary of the Canadian company SilverBearResources for silver mining at the Vertikalnoe deposit, operates on the territory of the municipal district. The project is currently under active capital construction. In 2017, the project received a positive opinion from the expert commission of ethnological expertise.
However, the population of the Lamynkhinsky nasleg is seriously concerned about: (a) the withdrawal of reindeer pastures in the calving and rutting territory, on which the reproduction of reindeer directly depends; (b) deterioration of the health of the population, in particular, reindeer herders who work in the area affected by the rotational village of CJSC “Prognoz”. The quarry of the deposit belongs to the enterprises of the I hazard class, the dumps of rocks—to the objects of the II hazard class. In general, the mining and processing complex of the deposit can be classified as industrial facilities of the 1st hazard class.
As a result of public hearings, the population of this municipal district proposed to make additions to the trilateral agreement proposed by the expert commission:
- -
Carrying out ethno-ecological monitoring on the territory of economic activity of CJSC “Prognoz” every three years, which should include the state of biological resources;
- -
Conducting medical and demographic monitoring in order to assess the state of health of the population every three years;
- -
To develop a program for the possible development of new lands for the further development of reindeer husbandry jointly with CJSC “Prognoz”, since the shift camp with a population of 150 people is located on pastures of spring-autumn reindeer grazing—calving and rutting.
The Southwestern middle taiga reindeer-farming-cattle-breeding zone includes two administrative districts: Lensky and Olekminsky. The vulnerability of territories to man-made impacts is relatively low. Agricultural industries are represented by meat and dairy cattle breeding, potato growing, vegetable growing, fodder production and agriculture. The fur trade is quite widely developed. Reindeer husbandry has developed insignificantly. The zone is known in the republic as a major center of the logging and woodworking industries. The oil industry begins to develop here (Talakanskoye field). In the future, the region will turn into a large mining and industrial center for the oil and gold mining industry.
The environment state in the zone is relatively tense and the state of health of the population of both regions is attributed to an increased level of susceptibility, in terms of morbidity with malignant neoplasms: Lensky—high, Olekminsky—increased.
In the ethnological expertise, two investment projects are considered:
Construction of two single-circuit power transmission lines kV PS-15—PS-16. The basis for the design of the structure is the construction of power grid facilities as part of the external power supply scheme of the Eastern Siberia—Pacific Ocean pipeline system. The territory of tribal community “Kindigir” will fall under the influence of power lines. The main occupation of the indigenous peoples of the North is reindeer husbandry and hunting. The expert commission of ethnological expertise gave a lot of comments on the AIEE; after eliminating the comments, it made a positive conclusion on the documents provided.
Main gas pipeline “Power of Siberia”. Stage 2.1–2.8. Olekminsky region, 2019 (for a description of the object, see below).
The Southern mountain-taiga agricultural-hunting-reindeer-breeding zone in historical development is the original habitat of the indigenous peoples of the North. Three settlements are registered on the territories of traditional nature management register: in the Aldansky region—”National district of Anama” and “Bellet national district”; in the Neryungrinsky region—the rural settlement “Iengrinsky Evenk national district”.
On the territories of traditional nature management of South Yakutia, it is planned to build seven large investment objects:
1. Kankunskaya hydroelectric power plant for the period of research, construction and operation. Aldan, Neryungri districts, 2012 (the project is frozen)
2. Construction of two single-circuit kV transmission power lines PS-15—PS-16. Aldan district, 2015
3. Construction of a bridge over the river Aldan on the Aldan-Olekminsk-Lensk highway, Aldansky region, 2015
4. Trunk gas pipeline “Power of Siberia”, Aldansky, Neryungri regions, 2015
5. Construction of an access railway to the Elga coal deposit from st. Ulak to st. Elga. Adjustment, 2018
6 and 7 (the name of investment projects and their description, see below)
On all the projects, the experts indicated quite a lot of comments; after correcting the comments, the materials of the assessment of the impact on the ethnological environment as part of the projects received a positive opinion of the expert commission of ethnological expertise.
Projects for the construction of large industrial facilities that will be located within the territories of traditional nature management of different natural and economic zones.
Operation of the Vostochny cosmodrome: “Fall area No. 985 of the central block and tail section flaps of the III stage of the Soyuz 2 ILV, stages 1a and 1b” and the Fall area “983 of the head fairing of the Soyuz 2 ILV, stages 1a and 1b”.
The operation of the Vostochny cosmodrome will include territories of traditional nature management of six administrative districts within four natural and economic zones:
- o
Southern mountain-taiga agriculture, hunting and reindeer herding—Aldansky region;
- o
South-Western middle taiga reindeer-farming-cattle breeding—Olekminsky region;
- o
North-West northern taiga hunting and reindeer breeding—Zhigansky, Oleneksky regions;
- o
Western middle taiga horse breeding and cattle breeding with the development of the diamond industry—Verkhnevilyuisky, Vilyuisky districts.
The project received a positive conclusion of the ethnological expertise by the order of the Government of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) dated 12 February 2016, No. 111-r.
- 2.
Main gas pipeline “Power of Siberia”. Stage 2.1–2.8.
The construction of the main gas pipeline at stage 2.1–2.18 will include three administrative districts within the territories of traditional nature management of two natural and economic zones:
Southern mountain-taiga agricultural-hunting-reindeer-breeding—Aldan, Neryungri regions;
Southwest middle taiga reindeer-farming-cattle-breeding—Olekminsky district.
The project received a positive conclusion of the ethnological examination by the order of the Government of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) dated November 12, 2019 No. 1458-r.