Job Status of Women Head Clergy: Findings from the National Congregations Study, 1998, 2006, and 2012
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Occupational Feminization and Organizational Gender Inequality
2.2. Congregational Characteristics as Measures of Clergy Job Status
2.3. Nonstandard Forms of Employment
3. Data and Methods
3.1. Data
3.2. Analyses
3.2.1. Analysis 1
3.2.2. Analysis 2
3.2.3. Analysis 3
3.3. Variables
4. Results
4.1. Analysis 1—Representation of Women as Head Clergy
4.2. Analysis 2—Congregation Characteristics as Indicators of Job Status
4.3. Analysis 3—Senior versus Sole Pastor and Non-Standard Jobs
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1 | In the regression analysis, when controlling for other factors, income was only marginally significant in two of the models. I ran analyses leaving out income and obtained similar results so the missing/imputed data is not a concern. |
2 | In 1998 and 2006 the high income threshold was over $100,000 per year and the low income threshold was below $25,000. In 2012 the high income threshold was over $140,000 per year and the low income threshold was below $35,000 a year. |
3 | Steensland et al. (2000) code Black protestant churches based only on denominational affiliation with a historically black Church. The NCS also includes any protestant church where over 80 percent of the members are African-American. |
Analysis—Years | Dependent Variables | Independent Variables | Control Variables |
---|---|---|---|
(1) 1998, 2006, 2012 | Clergy Gender | Year | |
(2) 1998, 2006, 2012 | Clergy Gender | Number of Adults | |
Congregation Income | |||
Total Staff | |||
Congregation Demographics | |||
% Female | |||
% Under age 35 | |||
% Over age 60 | |||
% Two-parent family | |||
% Bachelor’s degree | |||
% Income > $100,000 | |||
% Income < $25,000 | |||
≥80% white | |||
Theology | |||
Religious Tradition | |||
South | |||
Urban/Rural/Suburban | |||
(3) 2006, 2012 | Other Ministry Staff | Clergy Gender | Clergy Demographics |
F/T position | Race | ||
Paid | Age | ||
Multiple congregations | Graduate school | ||
Bi-vocational | Ordination status | ||
Standard position | Tenure | ||
Number of Adults | |||
Congregation Income | |||
Religious Tradition | |||
Urban/Rural/Suburban |
Year | Race | Female | Male | Total Race |
---|---|---|---|---|
1998 | White | 8.6% | 65.4% | 74.0% |
72 | 548 | 620 | ||
Diverse | 5.0% | 21.0% | 26.0% | |
42 | 176 | 218 | ||
Total Gender | 13.6% | 86.4% | 100% | |
114 | 724 | 838 | ||
2006 | White | 6.5% | 58.1% | 64.6% |
72 | 645 | 717 | ||
Diverse | 3.2% | 32.2% | 35.4% | |
36 | 357 | 393 | ||
Total Gender | 9.7% | 90.3% | 100% | |
108 | 1002 | 1110 | ||
2012 | White | 7.5% | 57.4% | 100% |
76 | 585 | 661 | ||
Diverse | 6.6% | 28.6% | 35.2% | |
67 | 292 | 359 | ||
Total Gender | 14.0% | 86.0% | 100% | |
143 | 887 | 1020 | ||
1998–2012 | White | 7.4% | 59.9% | 67.3% |
220 | 1778 | 1998 | ||
Diverse | 4.9% | 27.8% | 32.7% | |
145 | 825 | 970 | ||
Total Gender | 12.3% | 87.7% | 100% | |
365 | 2603 | 2698 |
Characteristic | 1998 | 2006 | 2012 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | N a/P | Women | Men | N a/P | Women | Men | N a/P | |
Means | Means | Means | |||||||
% Female | 66.1 | 59.2 | 673 * | 69.3 | 63.4 | 873 | 66.9 | 61.6 | 787 * |
% Under age 35 | 27.7 | 30.4 | 683 | 24.3 | 25.2 | 868 | 26.3 | 25.5 | 784 |
% Over age 60 | 32.6 | 27.6 | 689 | 33.0 | 34.2 | 869 | 39.8 | 34.8 | 786 |
% 2 parent fam | 38.4 | 45.7 | 625 | 30.7 | 37.0 | 828 | 33.9 | 38.6 | 746 |
% BA | 25.3 | 26.3 | 636 | 45.7 | 25.3 | 805 ** | 36.7 | 30.6 | 729 |
% rich | 2.3 | 4.9 | 635 ** | 8.8 | 8.0 | 752 | 7.7 | 5.9 | 710 |
% poor | 41.5 | 34.6 | 612 | 32.5 | 30.2 | 738 | 31.3 | 37.2 | 705 |
# of Adults | 62.3 | 99.8 | 710 ** | 68.6 | 97.0 | 879 * | 62.1 | 94.1 | 792 ** |
Income | 71,189 | 163,631 | 587 ** | 138,589 | 189,444 | 632 | 242,225 | 258,624 | 675 |
Total Staff | 3.8 | 3.2 | 703 | 2.9 | 4.0 | 854+ | 3.2 | 5.8 | 784 |
Percentages | Percentages | Percentages | |||||||
≥80% White | 62.5 | 73.3 | 690 | 61.1 | 58.4 | 867 | 53.0 | 55.2 | 787 |
Trad White Lib | 56.6 | 34.4 | 710 * | 23.4 | 42.9 | 879 * | 41.2 | 23.3 | 792 * |
Trad White Cons | 5.3 | 44.3 | 710 *** | 24.6 | 44.7 | 879 + | 9.7 | 45.0 | 792 *** |
Trad Black Prot | 30.9 | 17.3 | 710 | 26.4 | 29.5 | 879 | 42.7 | 23.5 | 792 * |
Trad Non-Chstn | 7.2 | 4.0 | 710 | 6.0 | 2.5 | 879 | 6.3 | 8.2 | 792 |
Theol–Liberal | 24.8 | 12.2 | 701 + | 37.1 | 6.0 | 860 *** | 27.0 | 12.8 | 785 * |
Theol–Mod | 44.5 | 28.7 | 701 | 23.2 | 34.9 | 860 | 45.5 | 23.4 | 785 * |
Theol–Conserv | 30.8 | 59.1 | 701 ** | 39.7 | 59.0 | 860 | 27.5 | 63.9 | 785 *** |
South | 28.6 | 49.0 | 710 + | 22.1 | 50.1 | 879 ** | 55.9 | 49.0 | 792 |
Urban | 46.7 | 40.6 | 710 | 47.4 | 42.9 | 879 | 51.5 | 49.9 | 791 |
Rural | 49.8 | 41.6 | 710 | 30.3 | 33.2 | 879 | 43.7 | 30.9 | 791 |
Suburban | 3.5 | 17.9 | 710 *** | 22.3 | 23.9 | 879 | 4.8 | 19.2 | 791 ** |
Dependent Variable—Clergy Female | 1998 | 2006 | 2012 | 1998–2012 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | 1.02 | |||||||
% Female | 1.040 * | 1.038 * | 1.018 | 1.028 *** | ||||
% Under age 35 | 1.008 | 0.975 + | 1.011 | 0.999 | ||||
% Over age 60 | 0.999 | 0.988 | 0.991 | 0.995 | ||||
% Two-parent family | 0.995 | 0.995 | 1.004 | 0.997 | ||||
% BA | 0.991 | 1.011 | 1.006 | 1.004 | ||||
% rich | 0.986 | 0.989 | 1.016 | 0.999 | ||||
% poor | 1 | 1.002 | 1.005 | 1.001 | ||||
>80% White | 0.939 | 0.819 | 5.364 * | 1.639 | ||||
ln Number of adults | 0.579* | 0.600* | 0.483 *** | 0.554 *** | ||||
ln Income | 1.008 | 0.99 | 1.002 | 0.997 | ||||
Total Staff | 1.013 | 1.018 | 0.981 | 1.008 | ||||
South | 0.738 | 0.484 * | 1.331 | 0.761 | ||||
Religious Tradition a | ||||||||
- White Mainline | 17.545 *** | 4.424 + | 2.309 + | 3.826 + | 11.038 *** | 0.799 | 5.196 *** | 1.763 |
- Black Protestant | 3.966 | 0.603 | 13.821 ** | 2.946 * | ||||
- Non-Christian | 17.106 ** | 4.313 | 1.575 | 2.61 | 1.758 | 0.127 + | 2.748 * | 0.933 |
- White Evangelical | 0.252 | 1.657 | 0.072 ** | 0.339 * | ||||
Theology a | ||||||||
- Liberal | 2.726 * | 2.652 * | 2.425 * | 1.983 + | 5.888 *** | 1.940 + | 3.104 *** | 1.937 ** |
- Moderate | 1.028 | 1.223 | 3.035 ** | 1.602 *** | ||||
- Conservative | 0.973 | 0.818 | 0.330 ** | 0.624 * | ||||
Location a | ||||||||
- Urban | 2.917 + | 2.272 | 0.613 | 0.857 | 2.721 + | 0.899 | 1.464 | |
- Rural | 1.284 | 0.716 | 3.026 + | 1.333 | 0.91 | |||
- Suburban | 0.779 | 1.397 | 0.331 + | 0.683 | ||||
Constant | 0.009 * | 0.046 | 0.27 | 0.143 | 0.005 ** | 0.656 | 0 | |
N | 508 | 508 | 665 | 665 | 648 | 648 | 1821 | 1821 |
2006 | 2012 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | N a/P | Women | Men | N a/P | |
Clergy Characteristics | Means | Means | ||||
Clergy Age | 55.1 | 53.3 | 861 | 54.3 | 55.3 | 789 |
Clergy Tenure | 5.2 | 9.0 | 872 *** | 7.0 | 10.0 | 790 * |
Percentages | Percentages | |||||
Clergy Race—White | 66.6 | 64.4 | 871 | 53.0 | 66.7 | 790 |
Clergy grad school | 55.3 | 59.8 | 872 | 49.4 | 39.5 | 792 |
Clergy ordained | 87.7 | 94.5 | 875 | 86.2 | 91.9 | 791 |
Job Characteristics | Percentages | Percentages | ||||
Other Ministry staff | 5.4 | 21.4 | 864 *** | 13.5 | 17.1 | 789 |
Paid | 61.9 | 81.5 | 874 + | 80.0 | 86.6 | 790 |
Fulltime | 54.8 | 63.5 | 876 | 54.8 | 73.5 | 792 * |
Bi-vocation (Other job) | 28.3 | 39.1 | 876 | 41.4 | 33.1 | 791 |
Other congregation | 24.5 | 11.9 | 876 | 26.4 | 15.3 | 792 |
FT, paid, single job | 52.4 | 45.9 | 875 | 42.0 | 48.7 | 791 |
Senior Pastor | Paid | Fulltime | ||||
2006 a | 2012 | 2006 | 2012 | 2006 | 2012 | |
Female Clergy | 0.410 * | 1.412 | 0.389 + | 0.689 | 0.819 | 0.987 |
Clergy Age | 0.994 | 1.022 + | 0.972 + | 0.99 | 0.947 *** | 0.966 ** |
Clergy race—White | 0.58 | 3.457 ** | 1.367 | 2.084 | 0.625 | 1.792 |
Clergy Tenure | 1.011 | 1.004 | 1.012 | 0.967 * | 1.030 + | 1.034 * |
Clergy seminary/grad | 1.083 | 0.804 | 3.045 ** | 1.115 | 1.517 | 1.299 |
Clergy Ordained | 0.658 | 0.679 | 1.357 | 5.076 ** | 1.904 | 2.099 + |
ln Number of Adults | 5.889 *** | 6.636 *** | 3.162 *** | 2.374 *** | 4.010 *** | 3.249 *** |
ln Income | 1.046 | 0.984 | 0.998 | 1.002 | 1.03 | 0.950 * |
Trad—White Mainline | 0.804 | 0.335 *** | 5.290 ** | 4.745 ** | 0.886 | 0.509 + |
Trad—Black Protestant | 0.143 *** | 0.526 | 0.991 | 1.18 | 0.472 | 0.749 |
Trad—Non-Christian | 0.73 | 1.039 | 0.362 | 1.256 | 2.987 | 0.368 + |
Urban | 1.314 | 1.835 + | 0.695 | 0.939 | 0.758 | 1.183 |
Rural | 0.829 | 0.766 | 0.598 | 1.318 | 0.863 | 0.836 |
Constant | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.123 | 0.059 * | 0.110 + | 0.108 * |
N | 831 | 780 | 840 | 781 | 842 | 783 |
Other Congregation | Bi-vocational | Standard Job | ||||
2006 | 2012 | 2006 | 2012 | 2006 | 2012 | |
Female Clergy | 0.893 | 0.924 | 0.287 * | 1.04 | 1.138 | 1.028 |
Clergy Age | 0.976 + | 0.984 | 0.954 *** | 0.968 ** | 0.989 | 0.995 |
Clergy race—White | 0.336 * | 0.260 ** | 0.348 ** | 1.099 | 1.534 | 1.093 |
Clergy Tenure | 1.034 * | 1.030 + | 1.016 | 0.999 | 1.009 | 1.001 |
Clergy seminary/grad | 1.092 | 1.259 | 0.369 *** | 0.611 * | 2.542 *** | 1.837 ** |
Clergy Ordained | 0.711 | 0.616 | 0.509 | 1.886 | 1.739 | 2.008 + |
Clergy Full time | 0.581 | 0.447 * | 0.069 *** | 0.144 *** | ||
Clergy Paid | 1.757 | 0.439 * | ||||
ln Num Adults | 0.859 | 0.877 | 0.699 ** | 0.738 ** | 2.482 *** | 2.183 *** |
ln Income | 1.01 | 0.981 | 0.983 | 0.993 | 1.040 * | 0.987 |
Trad—White Mainline | 1.745 + | 2.898 ** | 0.904 | 0.413 ** | 1.071 | 0.999 |
Trad—Black Protestant | 0.678 | 0.93 | 0.911 | 1.947 + | 0.695 | 0.422 * |
Trad—Non-Christian | 0.486 | 4.160 ** | 2.089 | 0.377 | 0.609 | 0.751 |
Urban | 0.717 | 0.838 | 1.205 | 1.11 | 0.766 | 0.832 |
Rural | 1.701 | 3.614 ** | 1.681 | 1.051 | 0.692 | 0.734 |
Constant | 1.946 | 1.441 | 484.363 *** | 45.098 *** | 0.014 *** | 0.045 *** |
N | 842 | 783 | 840 | 781 | 841 | 782 |
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Hoegeman, C. Job Status of Women Head Clergy: Findings from the National Congregations Study, 1998, 2006, and 2012. Religions 2017, 8, 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8080154
Hoegeman C. Job Status of Women Head Clergy: Findings from the National Congregations Study, 1998, 2006, and 2012. Religions. 2017; 8(8):154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8080154
Chicago/Turabian StyleHoegeman, Catherine. 2017. "Job Status of Women Head Clergy: Findings from the National Congregations Study, 1998, 2006, and 2012" Religions 8, no. 8: 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8080154