Confidence in Government and Attitudes toward Bribery: A Country-Cluster Analysis of Demographic and Religiosity Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
3.1. Data and Variables
3.2. ClusterAnalysis
4. Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Code | Country | N | Code | Country | N | Code | Country | N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DZ | Algeria | 1200 | IND | India | 1581 | Q | Qatar | 1060 |
AZ | Azerbaijan | 1002 | IRQ | Iraq | 1200 | RO | Romania | 1503 |
RA | Argentina | 1030 | J | Japan | 2443 | RUS | Russia | 2500 |
AUS | Australia | 1477 | KZ | Kazakhstan | 1500 | RWA | Rwanda | 1527 |
BRN | Bahrain | 1200 | HKJ | Jordan | 1200 | SGP | Singapore | 1972 |
AM | Armenia | 1100 | ROK | South Korea | 1200 | SLO | Slovenia | 1069 |
BR | Brazil | 1486 | KWT | Kuwait | 1303 | ZA | South Africa | 3531 |
BY | Belarus | 1535 | KS | Kyrgyzstan | 1500 | ZW | Zimbabwe | 1500 |
RCH | Chile | 1000 | RL | Lebanon | 1200 | E | Spain | 1189 |
CHN | China | 2300 | LAR | Libya | 2131 | S | Sweden | 1206 |
RC | Taiwan | 1238 | MAL | Malaysia | 1300 | T | Thailand | 1200 |
CO | Colombia | 1512 | MEX | Mexico | 2000 | TT | Trinidad and Tobago | 999 |
CY | Cyprus | 1000 | MA | Morocco | 1200 | TN | Tunisia | 1205 |
EC | Ecuador | 1202 | NL | Netherlands | 1902 | TR | Turkey | 1605 |
EST | Estonia | 1533 | NZ | New Zealand | 841 | UA | Ukraine | 1500 |
GE | Georgia | 1202 | WAN | Nigeria | 1759 | ET | Egypt | 1523 |
PS | Palestine | 1000 | PK | Pakistan | 1200 | USA | United States | 2232 |
D | Germany | 2046 | PE | Peru | 1210 | UY | Uruguay | 1000 |
GH | Ghana | 1552 | RP | Philippines | 1200 | UZ | Uzbekistan | 1500 |
HK | Hong Kong | 1000 | PL | Poland | 966 | YAR | Yemen | 1000 |
Variables | Questions and Descriptions |
---|---|
Demographic Variables | |
Age | It was measured as a respondent’s reported age from V242 |
Gender | A binary variable (male = 0 and female = 1) resulting from V240. |
Education Level | V248 asks: “What is the highest educational level that you have attained?” Responses are coded on a 9-point ordinal scale from “no formal education (1)” to “University-level education with degree (9)”. |
Social Class | V238 states: “People sometimes describe themselves as belonging to the working class, the middle class, or the upper or lower class. Would you describe yourself as belonging to the upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class, working class or lower class?” Their responses were reverse coded from 5 to 1, respectively. |
Marital Status | A binary variable (married = 1 and all other non-marital statuses = 0) resulting from V57. |
Scale of Income | V239 asks: “On this card is an income scale on which 1 indicates the lowest income group and 10 the highest income group in your country. We would like to know in what group your household is. Please, specify the appropriate number, counting all wages, salaries, pensions and other incomes that come in”. Responses coded 10-point ordinal scale from “lowest group (1)” to “highest group (10)”. |
Life Satisfaction | V23 asks: “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?” Responses are coded on a 10-point ordinal scale from “completely dissatisfied (1)” to “completely satisfied (10)”. |
Attitudinal Variables | |
Political Scale | V95 states: “In political matters, people talk of "the left" and "the right." How would you place your views on this scale, generally speaking?” Responses are scaled from “left (1)” to “right (10)” |
Government Responsibility | V98 asks: “How would you place your views on this scale? Responses are reverse coded from “people should take more responsibility to provide for themselves (1)” to “government should take more responsibility to ensure that everyone is provided for (10)”. |
Importance of Democracy | V140 asks: “How important is it for you to live in a country that is governed democratically?” Responses are coded on a 10-point ordinal scale from “not at all important (1)” to “Absolutely important (10)”. |
Ownership of Business | V97 asks: “How would you place your views on this scale?” Responses are coded on a 10-point ordinal scale from “government ownership of business and industry should be increased (1)” to “private ownership of business and industry should be increased (10)”. |
Pride of Nationality | V211 asks: “How proud are you to be […]? Responses are reverse coded from “very proud (1)” to “not at all proud (4)”. |
Happiness | V10 asks: “Taking all things together, would you say you are […]? Responses are reverse coded from “not at all happy (1)” to “very happy (4)”. |
Religiosity variables | |
Attendance at Religious Services | V145 asks: “Apart from weddings and funerals, about how often do you attend religious services these days?” Responses are reverse coded from “never, practically never (1)” to “and more than once a week (7)”. |
Believe in God | A binary variable (yes = 1 and no = 0) resulting from V148. |
Importance of God | V152 asks: “How important is God in your life?” Responses are coded on a 10-point ordinal scale from “not at all important (1)” to “very important (10)”. |
Praying | V146 asks: “Apart from weddings and funerals, about how often do you pray?” Responses are reverse coded from “never, practically never (1)” to “several times a day (8)”. |
Importance of Religion | V9 asks: “For each of the following, indicate how important it (religion) is in your life?” Responses are reverse coded from “very important (1)” to “not at all important (4)”. |
Religious Person | A binary variable (not a religious person and an atheist = 0 and a religious person = 1) resulting from V240. |
Code | Bribery Mean | Confidence Mean | Cluster | Code | Bribery Mean | Confidence Mean | Cluster | Code | Bribery Mean | Confidence Mean | Cluster |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RA | 1.59 | 2.09 | 1 | PE | 1.94 | 1.89 | 1 | SGP | 2.48 | 3.00 | 2 |
AM | 1.43 | 2.20 | 1 | PL | 1.45 | 1.95 | 1 | ZW | 2.36 | 2.46 | 2 |
AUS | 1.41 | 2.16 | 1 | RO | 1.36 | 1.82 | 1 | GH | 1.82 | 2.69 | 2 |
BR | 1.54 | 2.15 | 1 | SLO | 1.37 | 1.68 | 1 | RUS | 2.08 | 2.39 | 2 |
CO | 1.52 | 2.25 | 1 | ROK | 1.65 | 2.44 | 1 | MAL | 2.36 | 2.89 | 2 |
CY | 1.52 | 2.38 | 1 | E | 1.43 | 1.92 | 1 | S | 1.85 | 2.65 | 2 |
RCH | 1.67 | 2.13 | 1 | RC | 1.61 | 2.39 | 1 | WAN | 2.21 | 2.21 | 2 |
ET | 1.87 | 2.31 | 1 | T | 1.72 | 2.53 | 1 | RWA | 2.13 | 2.78 | 2 |
EST | 1.51 | 2.46 | 1 | TT | 1.33 | 2.30 | 1 | HK | 1.92 | 2.68 | 2 |
GE | 1.19 | 2.14 | 1 | TN | 1.42 | 1.77 | 1 | DZ | 2.19 | 2.31 | 2 |
D | 1.63 | 2.38 | 1 | TR | 1.25 | 2.65 | 1 | KS | 1.97 | 2.56 | 2 |
IRQ | 1.75 | 2.27 | 1 | UA | 1.99 | 1.92 | 1 | BRN | 2.11 | 2.91 | 2 |
J | 1.41 | 2.12 | 1 | USA | 1.67 | 2.17 | 1 | KZ | 2.09 | 2.95 | 2 |
HKJ | 1.45 | 2.65 | 1 | UY | 1.52 | 2.63 | 1 | EC | 1.90 | 2.52 | 2 |
LAR | 1.53 | 2.02 | 1 | YAR | 1.51 | 2.08 | 1 | MEX | 2.10 | 2.22 | 2 |
MA | 1.48 | 2.47 | 1 | PS | 1.75 | 2.26 | 1 | KWT | 2.38 | 2.87 | 2 |
NL | 1.42 | 2.22 | 1 | PK | 1.70 | 2.18 | 1 | BY | 2.33 | 2.58 | 2 |
NZ | 1.48 | 2.48 | 1 |
Variables | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | Std. Err. | p-Value | β | Std. Err. | p-Value | |
Demographic Variables | ||||||
Age | −0.014 | 0.001 | 0.000 ** | −0.005 | 0.001 | 0.000 ** |
Gender (Female =1) | −0.113 | 0.022 | 0.000 ** | −0.111 | 0.034 | 0.001 ** |
Education Level | −0.062 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | −0.024 | 0.008 | 0.002 ** |
Social Class | −0.024 | 0.012 | 0.048 * | 0.047 | 0.019 | 0.015 * |
Marital Status (Married=1) | 0.173 | 0.023 | 0.000 ** | 0.045 | 0.036 | 0.211 |
Scale of Income | 0.088 | 0.006 | 0.000 ** | 0.004 | 0.009 | 0.691 |
Life Satisfaction | −0.067 | 0.006 | 0000 ** | −0.015 | 0.009 | 0.077 |
Attitudinal Variables | ||||||
Political Scale | 0.035 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.064 | 0.008 | 0.000 ** |
Government Responsibility | 0.062 | 0.004 | 0.000 ** | 0.041 | 0.006 | 0.000 ** |
Importance of Democracy | −0.141 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | −0.085 | 0.009 | 0.000 ** |
Confidence in Government | 0.094 | 0.012 | 0.000 ** | 0.010 | 0.019 | 0.591 |
Ownership of Business | 0.021 | 0.004 | 0.000 ** | 0.033 | 0.006 | 0.000 ** |
Pride of Nationality | −0.067 | 0.014 | 0.000 ** | −0.125 | 0.025 | 0.000 ** |
Happiness | 0.024 | 0.017 | 0.169 | −0.023 | 0.027 | 0.406 |
Religiosity Variables | ||||||
Attendance at Religious Services | 0.055 | 0.007 | 0.000 ** | 0.035 | 0.011 | 0.002 ** |
Believe in God (Yes= 1) | −0.320 | 0.042 | 0.000 ** | −0.146 | 0.078 | 0.062 |
Importance of God | −0.099 | 0.006 | 0.000 ** | −0.043 | 0.009 | 0.000 |
Praying | 0.005 | 0.007 | 0.462 | 0.036 | 0.010 | 0.000 ** |
Importance of Religion | 0.035 | 0.015 | 0.021 * | 0.079 | 0.022 | 0.000 ** |
Religious person (Religious Person=1) | −0.143 | 0.030 | 0.000 ** | −0.133 | 0.049 | 0.006 ** |
R2 = 0.082 Adj. R2 = 0.082 | R2 = 0.038 Adj. R2 = 0.037 | |||||
F(18, 32,531) p < 0.000 | F(19, 14,085) p < 0.000 |
Variables | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | Std. Err. | p-Value | β | Std. Err. | p-Value | |
Demographic Variables | ||||||
Age | 0.007 | 0.001 | 0.000 ** | −0.001 | 0.001 | 0.341 |
Gender (Female =1) | −0.073 | 0.021 | 0.000 ** | −0.076 | 0.032 | 0.018 * |
Education Level | 0.000 | 0.005 | 0.961 | 0.004 | 0.007 | 0.575 |
Social Class | 0.047 | 0.012 | 0.000 ** | 0.029 | 0.018 | 0.114 |
Marital Status (Married=1) | 0.019 | 0.022 | 0.374 | 0.113 | 0.034 | 0.001 * |
Scale of Income | 0.036 | 0.006 | 0.000 ** | 0.017 | 0.009 | 0.060 |
Life Satisfaction | 0.022 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.007 | 0.008 | 0.377 |
Attitudinal Variables | ||||||
Political Scale | 0.059 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.046 | 0.007 | 0.000 ** |
Government Responsibility | 0.024 | 0.004 | 0.000 ** | −0.007 | 0.006 | 0.214 |
Importance of Democracy | 0.025 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.032 | 0.008 | 0.000 ** |
Ownership of Business | 0.042 | 0.004 | 0.000 ** | −0.002 | 0.006 | 0.708 |
Pride of Nationality | 0.179 | 0.014 | 0.000 ** | 0.298 | 0.024 | 0.000 ** |
Attitudes toward Bribery | 0.042 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.003 | 0.008 | 0.754 |
Happiness | 0.135 | 0.016 | 0.000 ** | 0.109 | 0.026 | 0.000 ** |
Religiosity Variables | ||||||
Attendance at Religious Services | 0.018 | 0.007 | 0.007 * | 0.015 | 0.010 | 0.139 |
Believe in God (Yes= 1) | −0.045 | 0.040 | 0.254 | 0.319 | 0.074 | 0.000 ** |
Importance of God | −0.044 | 0.005 | 0.000 ** | 0.033 | 0.008 | 0.000 ** |
Praying | −0.010 | 0.006 | 0.125 | −0.082 | 0.009 | 0.000 ** |
Importance of Religion | 0.105 | 0.014 | 0.000 ** | 0.119 | 0.021 | 0.000 ** |
Religious Person (Religious Person=1) | −0.060 | 0.028 | 0.031 | −0.163 | 0.046 | 0.000 ** |
R2 (Nagelkerke) | 0.049 | 0.049 | ||||
R2 (Cox & Snell) | 0.045 | 0.045 |
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Benk, S.; Yüzbaşı, B.; McGee, R.W. Confidence in Government and Attitudes toward Bribery: A Country-Cluster Analysis of Demographic and Religiosity Perspectives. Religions 2017, 8, 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8010008
Benk S, Yüzbaşı B, McGee RW. Confidence in Government and Attitudes toward Bribery: A Country-Cluster Analysis of Demographic and Religiosity Perspectives. Religions. 2017; 8(1):8. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8010008
Chicago/Turabian StyleBenk, Serkan, Bahadır Yüzbaşı, and Robert W. McGee. 2017. "Confidence in Government and Attitudes toward Bribery: A Country-Cluster Analysis of Demographic and Religiosity Perspectives" Religions 8, no. 1: 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel8010008