Heavy Metal Concentrations in Maltese Potable Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Sampling Plan
No. of Reservoirs Sampled | Total No. of Reservoirs | % of Reservoirs Sampled | |
---|---|---|---|
Malta | 15 | 19 | 78.9 |
Gozo | 4 | 5 | 80.0 |
Total | 19 | 24 | 79.2 |
Reservoir | A | B, J | C | D | E, F | G | H, I | K |
Localities | 21 | 1, 10, 12, | 5, 9, | 14 | 18 | 6, 7, 13, 20, | 27 | 4 |
23, 29, 31 | 22, 25 | 24, 26, 28 | ||||||
Reservoir | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R, S | |
Localities | 17 | 15 | 2, 19 | 3, 8, | 32 | 33, 38 | 16, 34, 35, | |
11, 30 | 36, 37, 39, 40 |
2.2. ICP-OES Analysis
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Radio Frequency (RF) generator power (W) | 1400 |
Plasma gas flow rate (L/min) | 12 |
Auxiliary gas flow rate (L/min) | 0.8 |
Nebulizer flow rate (L/min) | 1 |
Torch mode | Axial |
Element | % Recovery | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wavelength | Before Analysis | During Analysis | After Analysis | ||||||
ERM® CA010a | QC Low | QC High | Spiked Sample 32 | Spiked Sample 40 | ERM® CA010a | QC Low | QC High | ||
Aluminum | 394.401 | 96.7 | 99.0 | 95.5 | 101.4 | 105.4 | 97.9 | 100.2 | 97.0 |
Chromium | 205.552 | 95.4 | 102.5 | 97.6 | 82.6 | 86.6 | 92.5 | 89.5 | 89.2 |
Iron | 259.940 | 101.6 | 99.4 | 101.1 | 87.2 | 90.4 | 96.7 | 93.2 | 91.9 |
Nickel | 231.604 | 96.9 | 99.7 | 99.7 | 86.9 | 91.4 | 91.0 | 90.5 | 91.2 |
Copper | 327.396 | - | 102.1 | 98.1 | 93.2 | 98.9 | - | 97.2 | 95.2 |
Zinc | 213.856 | 101.8 | 98.5 | 101.9 | 94.1 | 92.6 | 102.6 | 108.5 | 102.8 |
Cadmium | 228.802 | - | 102.0 | 98.0 | 93.6 | 94.9 | - | 98.5 | 93.8 |
Lead | 220.351 | 89.5 | 111.0 | 102.4 | 96.9 | 90.5 | 96.3 | 84.0 | 87.8 |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Mean Concentrations of Localities and Their Corresponding Reservoirs
Element | Mean | Max. Value | LOD | LOQ | Legal Limit | Unit | SD | n | Analytical Lines (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aluminum | 0.026 | 0.356 | 0.006 | 0.018 | 0.2 | mg/L | 0.058 | 28 | 394.401 |
Cadmium | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.006 | 0.005 | mg/L | 0.0006 | 1 | 228.802 |
Chromium | <0.002 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.05 | mg/L | 0.0005 | 2 | 205.552 |
Copper | <0.02 | 0.028 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 2.0 | mg/L | 0.008 | 4 | 327.396 |
Iron | 0.132 | 1.225 | 0.003 | 0.01 | 0.2 | mg/L | 0.227 | 40 | 259.94 |
Lead | <0.004 | 0.012 | 0.004 | 0.014 | 0.01 | mg/L | 0.003 | 14 | 220.351 |
Nickel | <0.003 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.008 | 0.02 | mg/L | 0.0009 | 1 | 231.604 |
Zinc | 0.115 | 0.504 | 0.003 | 0.009 | - | mg/L | 0.136 | 39 | 213.856 |
Element | Mean | Max. Value | LOD | LOQ | Legal Limit | Unit | SD | n | Analytical Lines (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aluminum | 0.01 | 0.043 | 0.006 | 0.018 | 0.2 | mg/L | 0.012 | 10 | 394.401 |
Cadmium | 0.003 | 0.014 | 0.002 | 0.006 | 0.005 | mg/L | 0.003 | 10 | 228.802 |
Chromium | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.05 | mg/L | 0.007 | 3 | 205.552 |
Copper | <0.02 | <0.02b | 0.02 | 0.05 | 2.0 | mg/L | 0 | - | 327.396 |
Iron | 0.06 | 0.275 | 0.003 | 0.01 | 0.2 | mg/L | 0.065 | 17 | 259.94 |
Lead | <0.004 | <0.004 | 0.004 | 0.014 | 0.01 | mg/L | 0 | - | 220.351 |
Nickel | 0.003 | 0.062 | 0.003 | 0.008 | 0.02 | mg/L | 0.014 | 1 | 231.604 |
Zinc | 0.011 | 0.062 | 0.003 | 0.009 | - | mg/L | 0.023 | 4 | 213.856 |
3.2. Variations between Localities and Their Corresponding Supply Reservoirs
3.3. General Trends of Heavy Metal Concentrations in the Maltese Islands
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Appendix
Variations between Localities and Their Corresponding Supply Reservoirs
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | A | 0.0173 | 0.0019 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.1507 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 21 | 0.3557 | 0.0005 | 0.0011 | N.D. | 0.0255 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0116 |
p | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.8608 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | C | 0.0031 | 0.0022 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0385 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 5 | 0.0093 | 0.0012 | N.D. | 0.0003 | 0.1005 | 0.0007 | 0.0003 | 0.0925 |
p | 0.0160 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | 0.0902 | <0.0001 * | 0.1522 | 0.0256 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 9 | 0.0027 | 0.0012 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0984 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0198 |
p | 0.7929 | 0.0001 * | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 22 | 0.0028 | 0.0010 | 0.0007 | N.D. | 0.1175 | 0.0046 | N.D. | 0.3902 |
p | 0.2300 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.0021 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 25 | 0.0104 | 0.0008 | 0.0012 | 0.0022 | 0.0822 | 0.0027 | N.D. | 0.0322 |
p | −8.820 | <0.0001 * | 0.0004 * | 0.0015 | <0.0001 * | 0.1076 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | D | 0.0036 | 0.0022 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0444 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 14 | 0.0131 | 0.0014 | N.D. | 0.0046 | 0.0392 | 0.0055 | 0.0008 | 0.0843 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0051 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.0005 * | 0.0088 | 0.1507 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | B | 0.0014 | 0.0022 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0249 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
J | 0.0029 | 0.0015 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0319 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 1 | 0.0108 | 0.0017 | N.D. | 0.0021 | 0.1164 | 0.0013 | 0.0003 | 0.1963 |
p | (B) | <0.0001 * | 0.0052 | 0.6612 | 0.0009 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0410 | 0.0560 | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | <0.0001 * | 0.2154 | 0.1852 | 0.0009 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0525 | 0.0560 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 10 | 0.0121 | 0.0016 | 0.0003 | 0.0283 | 0.0697 | 0.0022 | 0.0017 | 0.0710 |
p | (B) | 0.0003 * | −0.0019 | 0.2336 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0339 | 0.0007 * | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | 0.0006 * | 0.4973 | 0.1666 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0459 | 0.0007 * | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 12 | 0.0548 | 0.0014 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0351 | 0.0014 | N.D. | 0.0431 |
p | (B) | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.3632 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.2670 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | <0.0001 * | 0.4162 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.3398 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 23 | 0.0215 | 0.0009 | 0.0008 | 0.0069 | 0.1316 | 0.0016 | 0.0001 | 0.0235 |
p | (B) | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.0190 | 0.0014 * | <0.0001 * | 0.1411 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | <0.0001 * | 0.0098 | 0.0155 | 0.0014 * | <0.0001 * | 0.1917 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 29 | 0.0189 | 0.0006 | 0.0010 | 0.0029 | 1.2247 | 0.0060 | 0.0010 | 0.4179 |
p | (B) | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0071 | 0.0327 | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | <0.0001 * | 0.0004 * | 0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0080 | 0.0327 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 31 | 0.0138 | 0.0011 | 0.0010 | N.D. | 0.0721 | 0.0060 | 0.0007 | 0.1818 |
p | (B) | <0.0001 * | 0.0004 * | −0.0030 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.0075 | 0.0085 | <0.0001 * |
p | (J) | <0.0001 * | 0.0600 | −0.0028 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.0084 | 0.0085 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | E | 0.0434 | 0.0013 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.2754 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 18 | 0.0078 | 0.0006 | 0.0002 | 0.0017 | 0.0419 | 0.0087 | N.D. | 0.0952 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.3041 | 0.2176 | <0.0001 * | −0.0009 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Locality (mg/L) | 27 | 0.0361 | 0.0004 | 0.0019 | 0.0100 | 0.1017 | 0.0031 | 0.0005 | 0.0213 |
Corresponding Reservoir (mg/L) | H | 0.0020 | 0.0136 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
p | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0005 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0522 | 0.0476 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Reservoir (mg/L) | I | 0.0119 | 0.0016 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.1040 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0494 | 0.0522 | 0.0476 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | K | 0.0217 | 0.0013 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0283 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 4 | 0.0389 | 0.0008 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0222 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0517 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0475 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.5051 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * |
Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | G | 0.0331 | 0.0016 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0280 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 6 | 0.0154 | 0.0011 | N.D. | 0.0017 | 0.0230 | N.D. | 0.0002 | 0.0198 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0730 | 0.0323 | 0.2120 | <0.0001 * | 0.2031 | 0.1877 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 7 | 0.0219 | 0.0008 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0432 | N.D. | 0.0013 | 0.0600 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0038 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.2304 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 13 | 0.0137 | 0.0011 | N.D. | 0.0011 | 0.0560 | 0.0005 | 0.0008 | 0.1358 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0307 | 1.0000 | 0.2136 | <0.0001 * | 0.2071 | 0.0676 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 20 | 0.1148 | 0.0005 | 0.0022 | 0.0217 | 0.0374 | N.D. | 0.0014 | 0.0125 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 1.0000 | 0.0172 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 24 | 0.0787 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | N.D. | 0.0258 | 0.0008 | N.D. | 0.0154 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0002 * | 0.0415 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 26 | 0.0322 | 0.0004 | 0.0009 | N.D. | 0.0193 | 0.0026 | N.D. | 0.0260 |
p | 0.3317 | 0.0002 * | 0.0018 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.0314 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 28 | 0.0164 | 0.0005 | 0.0004 | N.D. | 0.0212 | 0.0015 | N.D. | 0.0384 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0002 * | 0.0207 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * | 0.1688 | 1.0000 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | L | 0.0022 | 0.0030 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0644 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 17 | 0.0039 | 0.0013 | 0.0008 | 0.0020 | 0.0422 | 0.0009 | 0.0055 | 0.4059 |
p | 0.0534 | <0.0001 * | 0.0002 * | −0.0011 | <0.0001 * | 0.1763 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | M | 0.0076 | 0.0021 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0850 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 15 | 0.0160 | 0.0013 | N.D. | 0.0087 | 0.1110 | 0.0001 | 0.0017 | 0.0043 |
p | 0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.2586 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | 0.0004 * | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | N | 0.0074 | 0.0020 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0421 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 2 | 0.0001 | 0.0015 | N.D. | 0.0012 | 0.4060 | 0.0003 | N.D. | 0.5041 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0217 | 1.0000 | 0.0018 | <0.0001 * | 0.1307 | 0.2257 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 19 | 0.0047 | 0.0011 | 0.0002 | 0.0008 | 0.1483 | 0.0068 | 0.0001 | 0.0986 |
p | 0.0338 | −0.0012 | 0.1357 | 0.0087 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | O | 0.0015 | 0.0013 | 0.0298 | N.D. | 0.0002 | 0.0019 | 0.0622 | N.D. |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 3 | 0.0038 | 0.0004 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.7928 | N.D. | 0.0004 | 0.2567 |
p | 0.0767 | 0.0791 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | 0.1290 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 8 | 0.0151 | 0.0004 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.1611 | N.D. | 0.0002 | 0.0656 |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0773 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 11 | 0.0182 | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0107 | N.D. | 0.0004 | N.D. |
p | <0.0001 * | 0.0362 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | <0.0001 * | 1.0000 | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 30 | 0.0079 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | N.D. | 0.4258 | 0.0030 | N.D. | 0.0682 |
p | 0.0003 * | 0.0461 | <0.0001 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * | 0.4307 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | R | 0.0015 | 0.0026 | 0.0021 | 0.0002 | 0.0298 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0622 |
S | 0.0013 | 0.0025 | 0.0019 | 0.0009 | 0.0272 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0487 | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 16 | N.D. | 0.0020 | N.D. | 0.0025 | 0.1169 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.1138 |
p | (R) | 0.1214 | 0.0188 | 0.0004 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.2204 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | 0.0362 | −0.0022 | 0.0003 * | 0.0002 * | <0.0001 * | 1.0000 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 34 | 0.0048 | N.D. | 0.0004 | 0.0013 | 0.0689 | 0.0035 | N.D. | 0.1004 |
p | (R) | 0.0256 | <0.0001 * | 0.0005 * | 0.0013 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0545 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | 0.0172 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.0356 | <0.0001 * | 0.0139 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 35 | 0.0009 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0027 | 0.0615 | 0.0103 | N.D. | 0.0301 |
p | (R) | 0.4454 | <0.0001 * | 0.0004 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0041 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | 0.2471 | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.0005 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0035 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 36 | 0.0097 | N.D. | 0.0003 | 0.0150 | 0.0468 | 0.0121 | N.D. | 0.0397 |
p | (R) | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0002 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 37 | 0.0093 | N.D. | 0.0002 | 0.0283 | 0.0368 | 0.0066 | N.D. | 0.02678 |
p | (R) | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0003 * | 0.0206 | <0.0001 * | 0.0357 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.0222 | <0.0001 * | 0.0214 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 39 | 0.0090 | N.D. | 0.0008 | 0.0279 | 0.0171 | 0.0093 | N.D. | 0.1683 |
p | (R) | 0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0028 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.6676 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | −0.0023 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.6676 | <0.0001 * |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 40 | 0.0186 | N.D. | 0.0010 | 0.0027 | 0.0084 | 0.0043 | N.D. | 0.0305 |
p | (R) | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0071 | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0065 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
p | (S) | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0064 | 0.0003 * | <0.0001 * | −0.0019 | 0.3632 | <0.0001 * |
Al | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Pb | Ni | Zn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reservoir (mg/L) | P | 0.0065 | 0.0032 | 0.0013 | N.D. | 0.0339 | 0.0022 | N.D. | 0.0467 |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 32 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0004 | 0.0012 | 0.0668 | 0.0047 | N.D. | 0.0944 |
p | 0.0002 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0258 | 0.0068 | <0.0001 * | 0.2093 | 0.1910 | <0.0001 * | |
Reservoir (mg/L) | Q | 0.0078 | 0.0031 | 0.0017 | N.D. | 0.0310 | N.D. | 0.0003 | 0.0569 |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 33 | 0.0042 | N.D. | 0.0002 | 0.0008 | 0.0962 | 0.0048 | N.D. | 0.0721 |
p | 0.0992 | <0.0001 * | 0.0001 * | 0.0417 | <0.0001 * | 0.0322 | 0.0756 | <0.0001 * | |
Corresponding Locality (mg/L) | 38 | 0.0010 | N.D. | N.D. | 0.0006 | 0.1446 | 0.0077 | N.D. | 0.4672 |
p | 0.0002 * | <0.0001 * | 0.0002 * | 0.0532 | <0.0001 * | 0.0148 | 0.0756 | <0.0001 * |
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bugeja, R.; Shoemake, C. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Maltese Potable Water. Environments 2015, 2, 186-199. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020186
Bugeja R, Shoemake C. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Maltese Potable Water. Environments. 2015; 2(2):186-199. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020186
Chicago/Turabian StyleBugeja, Roberta, and Claire Shoemake. 2015. "Heavy Metal Concentrations in Maltese Potable Water" Environments 2, no. 2: 186-199. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments2020186