Figure 1.
Woods mineralized with calcite. (A) Middle Pleistocene mangrove root, Acicennica nitida, Sarasota County, Florida, USA; (B) Late Cretaceous wood, Nanaimo Group, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.
Figure 1.
Woods mineralized with calcite. (A) Middle Pleistocene mangrove root, Acicennica nitida, Sarasota County, Florida, USA; (B) Late Cretaceous wood, Nanaimo Group, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.
Figure 2.
Calcite mineralized fossil wood. (A–E) are from Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. (A) Specimen from Puntledge River, transverse orientation. (B) Specimen from Collishaw Point, Hornby Island, transverse orientation. Relict organic matter (as evidenced in acetate peels) causes thin cell walls to be brownish red; (C) SEM view of a single tracheid of Puntledge River wood. Cell wall appears thick because of microcrystalline calcite. Lumina are filled with more coarsely crystalline calcite; (D) SEM view, specimen from Port Moody, tangential orientation. Relict smooth surfaces of cell walls are mineralized with calcite; (E) Port Hardy specimen, transverse orientation. Polarized light illumination shows radiating calcite crystals that have disrupted cellular tissue; (F) Neogene wood from Glades County, Florida, USA. Tangential orientation, showing tracheid walls mineralized with coarsely-crystalline calcite.
Figure 2.
Calcite mineralized fossil wood. (A–E) are from Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. (A) Specimen from Puntledge River, transverse orientation. (B) Specimen from Collishaw Point, Hornby Island, transverse orientation. Relict organic matter (as evidenced in acetate peels) causes thin cell walls to be brownish red; (C) SEM view of a single tracheid of Puntledge River wood. Cell wall appears thick because of microcrystalline calcite. Lumina are filled with more coarsely crystalline calcite; (D) SEM view, specimen from Port Moody, tangential orientation. Relict smooth surfaces of cell walls are mineralized with calcite; (E) Port Hardy specimen, transverse orientation. Polarized light illumination shows radiating calcite crystals that have disrupted cellular tissue; (F) Neogene wood from Glades County, Florida, USA. Tangential orientation, showing tracheid walls mineralized with coarsely-crystalline calcite.
Figure 3.
Dolomite wood from Eocene Puget Group, King County, Washington, USA. (A) Log from John Henry Coal Mine, Black Diamond, Washington; (B) dolomitized wood fragment showing megascopic crystalline quartz (light colored) deposited in fractures. From coal-bearing beds near Issaquah, Washington; (C) Thin section of Issaquah wood, composed of dolomitized tissue with microcrystalline quartz filling fractures.
Figure 3.
Dolomite wood from Eocene Puget Group, King County, Washington, USA. (A) Log from John Henry Coal Mine, Black Diamond, Washington; (B) dolomitized wood fragment showing megascopic crystalline quartz (light colored) deposited in fractures. From coal-bearing beds near Issaquah, Washington; (C) Thin section of Issaquah wood, composed of dolomitized tissue with microcrystalline quartz filling fractures.
Figure 4.
Miocene phosphatized wood. (A) Gooch Table, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA; (B) Bruneau, Idaho, USA.
Figure 4.
Miocene phosphatized wood. (A) Gooch Table, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA; (B) Bruneau, Idaho, USA.
Figure 5.
Phosphatized Miocene wood from Bruneau, Idaho, USA. (A) Driftwood limbs in lacustrine sediment; (B) SEM image showing tracheids mineralized with carbonate fluorapatite. Radial view. Spiral texture characterizes reaction wood, where asymmetric growth occurs in trees growing non-vertically. One tracheid shows circular casts of intertracheid pits, an adjacent tracheid is filled with blocky apatite crystals.
Figure 5.
Phosphatized Miocene wood from Bruneau, Idaho, USA. (A) Driftwood limbs in lacustrine sediment; (B) SEM image showing tracheids mineralized with carbonate fluorapatite. Radial view. Spiral texture characterizes reaction wood, where asymmetric growth occurs in trees growing non-vertically. One tracheid shows circular casts of intertracheid pits, an adjacent tracheid is filled with blocky apatite crystals.
Figure 6.
Thin sections of phosphatized angiosperm wood from Bruneau, Idaho USA, transverse orientation. (A) Carya sp.; (B) Ulmus sp.; (C) unidentified hardwood. Photos courtesy of T.A. Dillhoff, used with permission.
Figure 6.
Thin sections of phosphatized angiosperm wood from Bruneau, Idaho USA, transverse orientation. (A) Carya sp.; (B) Ulmus sp.; (C) unidentified hardwood. Photos courtesy of T.A. Dillhoff, used with permission.
Figure 7.
Phosphatized wood. (A,B) carbonate-fluorapatite, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA, Miocene, radial view; (C,D) fluorapatite, Santa Fe River, Florida, USA, Neogene, radial view; (E,F) small euhedral apatite crystals on cell walls in carbonized wood, Yuba River, Nevada County, California, USA, Eocene, (E) oblique transverse view, (F) radial view.
Figure 7.
Phosphatized wood. (A,B) carbonate-fluorapatite, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA, Miocene, radial view; (C,D) fluorapatite, Santa Fe River, Florida, USA, Neogene, radial view; (E,F) small euhedral apatite crystals on cell walls in carbonized wood, Yuba River, Nevada County, California, USA, Eocene, (E) oblique transverse view, (F) radial view.
Figure 8.
XRD pattern for iron-mineralized Eocene wood from Quinisco Lake, British Columbia, Canada. The generally-diffuse pattern contains weak peaks that indicate the presence of goethite, FeO(OH).
Figure 8.
XRD pattern for iron-mineralized Eocene wood from Quinisco Lake, British Columbia, Canada. The generally-diffuse pattern contains weak peaks that indicate the presence of goethite, FeO(OH).
Figure 9.
Iron oxide woods. (A) Pliocene, Burney, California, USA; (B) Eocene, Quinisco Lake, British Columbia, Canada; (C) Miocene, Fe-Mn oxides, Gooch Table, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA; (D) Upper Cretaceous, Hell Creek Formation, eastern Montana, USA. This specimen preserves no cellular detail; it may be a limb cast.
Figure 9.
Iron oxide woods. (A) Pliocene, Burney, California, USA; (B) Eocene, Quinisco Lake, British Columbia, Canada; (C) Miocene, Fe-Mn oxides, Gooch Table, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA; (D) Upper Cretaceous, Hell Creek Formation, eastern Montana, USA. This specimen preserves no cellular detail; it may be a limb cast.
Figure 10.
SEM images of iron-mineralized wood. (A,B) Iron oxide, Piocene, Burney, California, USA, oblique radial view; (C,D) Iron oxide, Lower Cretaceous, Antler, Oklahoma, USA; (C) radial view; (D) oblique transverse view shows hematite microcrystals replacing cell walls; (E,F) octahedral pyrite crystals in carbonized wood, oblique transverse view. Eocene, Yuba River, Nevada County, California, USA.
Figure 10.
SEM images of iron-mineralized wood. (A,B) Iron oxide, Piocene, Burney, California, USA, oblique radial view; (C,D) Iron oxide, Lower Cretaceous, Antler, Oklahoma, USA; (C) radial view; (D) oblique transverse view shows hematite microcrystals replacing cell walls; (E,F) octahedral pyrite crystals in carbonized wood, oblique transverse view. Eocene, Yuba River, Nevada County, California, USA.
Figure 11.
Sideritic “ironstone” nodules containing fossil wood, Pennsylvanian age, Mazon Creek, Braidwood, Illinois. (A) Unidentified woody twig; (B) Calamites.
Figure 11.
Sideritic “ironstone” nodules containing fossil wood, Pennsylvanian age, Mazon Creek, Braidwood, Illinois. (A) Unidentified woody twig; (B) Calamites.
Figure 12.
Late Miocene siderite mineralized wood Kenai Group near Homer, southern Alaska, USA. (A) Siderite mineralized stumps weathering from coal bed in intertidal zone north of Diamond Creek, Late Miocene Beluga Formation. Arrows mark individual stumps; (B) Siderite stump northwest of Michael Creek; (C) Close-up view of siderite-mineralized wood. Photos courtesy of Linda Reinike-Smith, used with permission.
Figure 12.
Late Miocene siderite mineralized wood Kenai Group near Homer, southern Alaska, USA. (A) Siderite mineralized stumps weathering from coal bed in intertidal zone north of Diamond Creek, Late Miocene Beluga Formation. Arrows mark individual stumps; (B) Siderite stump northwest of Michael Creek; (C) Close-up view of siderite-mineralized wood. Photos courtesy of Linda Reinike-Smith, used with permission.
Figure 13.
SEM/EDS spectrum for Fe-Mn oxide fossil wood from Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA.
Figure 13.
SEM/EDS spectrum for Fe-Mn oxide fossil wood from Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA.
Figure 14.
SEM radial views of Miocene wood mineralized with Mn-Fe, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA, specimen in
Figure 7C. (
A,
B) Tracheids mineralization showing flake-like morphology; (
C,
D) tracheids mineralized with blocky mineral particles.
Figure 14.
SEM radial views of Miocene wood mineralized with Mn-Fe, Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA, specimen in
Figure 7C. (
A,
B) Tracheids mineralization showing flake-like morphology; (
C,
D) tracheids mineralized with blocky mineral particles.
Figure 15.
Nacimiento Mine site, near Cuba, New Mexico, USA. 2016 photo. Fossil wood can be collected from mine dumps bordering the water-filled open pit mine.
Figure 15.
Nacimiento Mine site, near Cuba, New Mexico, USA. 2016 photo. Fossil wood can be collected from mine dumps bordering the water-filled open pit mine.
Figure 16.
Triassic wood from the Nacimienento Mine, New Mexico, USA. (A) Specimen shows carbonized wood in sandstone matrix stained green from malachite; (B) Polished sawn surface. Wood has been replaced by primarily by chalcocite, and is enclosed within malachite-bearing sandstone.
Figure 16.
Triassic wood from the Nacimienento Mine, New Mexico, USA. (A) Specimen shows carbonized wood in sandstone matrix stained green from malachite; (B) Polished sawn surface. Wood has been replaced by primarily by chalcocite, and is enclosed within malachite-bearing sandstone.
Figure 17.
SEM images of iron mineralized wood from the Naciemento Mine. (A) Carbonized cell walls and cell lumina contain marcasite (arrows); (B) cells mineralized with tabular crystals of hematite, with small prismatic aragonite crystals (arrows); (C) high magnification view showing bipyramidal orthorhombic aragonite crystals on hematite (arrows); (D) back-scattered electron image of cut surface of wood replaced by minerals. Q = quartz sand grains from the fossil matrix are enclosed within a complex matrix of chalcopyrite (CP) and chalcocite (CC).
Figure 17.
SEM images of iron mineralized wood from the Naciemento Mine. (A) Carbonized cell walls and cell lumina contain marcasite (arrows); (B) cells mineralized with tabular crystals of hematite, with small prismatic aragonite crystals (arrows); (C) high magnification view showing bipyramidal orthorhombic aragonite crystals on hematite (arrows); (D) back-scattered electron image of cut surface of wood replaced by minerals. Q = quartz sand grains from the fossil matrix are enclosed within a complex matrix of chalcopyrite (CP) and chalcocite (CC).
Figure 18.
Copper-mineralized wood from Lower Permian Matfield Shale, Pawnee Oklahoma USA. Oklahoma Geological Survey photo by N.H. Suneson. Diameter of coin is 25 mm.
Figure 18.
Copper-mineralized wood from Lower Permian Matfield Shale, Pawnee Oklahoma USA. Oklahoma Geological Survey photo by N.H. Suneson. Diameter of coin is 25 mm.
Figure 19.
Copper-mineralized silicified log near Zile, Turkey, photographed at the discovery site in 2013. (A) Most specimens sold for export were obtained from this log (B) close-up view of the surface. Photos courtesy of Ziledin Haberler, used with permission.
Figure 19.
Copper-mineralized silicified log near Zile, Turkey, photographed at the discovery site in 2013. (A) Most specimens sold for export were obtained from this log (B) close-up view of the surface. Photos courtesy of Ziledin Haberler, used with permission.
Figure 20.
“Colla wood” primarily owes its bright colors to blue azurite (A) and green malachite (B).
Figure 20.
“Colla wood” primarily owes its bright colors to blue azurite (A) and green malachite (B).
Figure 21.
Color patterns are evidence of a complex mineralization sequence, where mineral-bearing solutions penetrated partially silicified wood to form diffuse color zones (A,B), and along fractures to produce geometric shapes (C).
Figure 21.
Color patterns are evidence of a complex mineralization sequence, where mineral-bearing solutions penetrated partially silicified wood to form diffuse color zones (A,B), and along fractures to produce geometric shapes (C).
Figure 22.
XRD pattern of “colla wood” from Turkey. Cu K-alpha radiation.
Figure 22.
XRD pattern of “colla wood” from Turkey. Cu K-alpha radiation.
Figure 23.
Low-power magnified views of “colla wood”. (A–C) Images show vivid color patterns caused by diffuse infiltration of copper minerals into silicified tissue; (D) chryscolla, marked with arrow, is a minor constituent; most coloration is due to malachite (green) and azurite (blue); (E) azurite was deposited by fluids moving through fractures in silicified wood; (F) copper-stained chalcedony fills fracture that cross-cuts wood grain.
Figure 23.
Low-power magnified views of “colla wood”. (A–C) Images show vivid color patterns caused by diffuse infiltration of copper minerals into silicified tissue; (D) chryscolla, marked with arrow, is a minor constituent; most coloration is due to malachite (green) and azurite (blue); (E) azurite was deposited by fluids moving through fractures in silicified wood; (F) copper-stained chalcedony fills fracture that cross-cuts wood grain.
Figure 24.
Reflected light microscope images. Abbreviations: A = azurite; M = malachite, H = hematite, Q = quartz (chalcedony). (A,B) Azurite has diffused along wood grain direction; (C) arrow marks malachite veinlet; (D) hematite sometimes shows rudimentary preservation of wood cell structure (arrow).
Figure 24.
Reflected light microscope images. Abbreviations: A = azurite; M = malachite, H = hematite, Q = quartz (chalcedony). (A,B) Azurite has diffused along wood grain direction; (C) arrow marks malachite veinlet; (D) hematite sometimes shows rudimentary preservation of wood cell structure (arrow).
Figure 25.
Volbrothite in “colla wood”. (A) This yellow mineral infiltrates marginal areas of brecciated silicified wood fragments, and fills the lumina of many cells. (B) Light-colored areas are chalcedony-filled fractures.
Figure 25.
Volbrothite in “colla wood”. (A) This yellow mineral infiltrates marginal areas of brecciated silicified wood fragments, and fills the lumina of many cells. (B) Light-colored areas are chalcedony-filled fractures.
Figure 26.
Silicified wood from Chemnitz, Germany, containing fluorite (marked with arrows). (A) Psaronius infarctus, with patchy fluorite; (B) climber Ankyropteris brongniartii. Fluorite is dark gray; (C) silicified gymnosperm wood with fluorite filling individual tracheids. Photos courtesy of Ronny Röβler, used with permission.
Figure 26.
Silicified wood from Chemnitz, Germany, containing fluorite (marked with arrows). (A) Psaronius infarctus, with patchy fluorite; (B) climber Ankyropteris brongniartii. Fluorite is dark gray; (C) silicified gymnosperm wood with fluorite filling individual tracheids. Photos courtesy of Ronny Röβler, used with permission.
Figure 27.
In many specimens of Chemitz wood that contain fluorite, the mineral occurs in irregular patchy zones, but in this sample, the main trunk tissue (xylem) is silicified, and fluorite is restricted to the outermost stem tissues (extraxylary tissues). Arrow marks cambium layer. Photo courtesy of Ronny Röβler, used with permission.
Figure 27.
In many specimens of Chemitz wood that contain fluorite, the mineral occurs in irregular patchy zones, but in this sample, the main trunk tissue (xylem) is silicified, and fluorite is restricted to the outermost stem tissues (extraxylary tissues). Arrow marks cambium layer. Photo courtesy of Ronny Röβler, used with permission.
Figure 28.
Fossiliferous nodules from Steinhardt Quarry. (A) Sandstone concretions gathered from quarry strata; (B) barite replacement of wood; (C,D) barite replacement of conifer cones.
Figure 28.
Fossiliferous nodules from Steinhardt Quarry. (A) Sandstone concretions gathered from quarry strata; (B) barite replacement of wood; (C,D) barite replacement of conifer cones.
Figure 29.
Permian wood replaced by volkoenskite, from Ural Mountains, western Russia. Photos courtesy of Mike Viney, used with permission.
Figure 29.
Permian wood replaced by volkoenskite, from Ural Mountains, western Russia. Photos courtesy of Mike Viney, used with permission.
Figure 30.
Wood mineralized with calcite and natrolite, Mount Elgon, Uganda, Miocene age. Photos courtesy of Mike Viney, used with permission.
Figure 30.
Wood mineralized with calcite and natrolite, Mount Elgon, Uganda, Miocene age. Photos courtesy of Mike Viney, used with permission.
Figure 31.
SEM images of Mount Elgon fossil wood. (A) Exterior view of limb showing relict wood grain texture mineralized with stilbite; (B) patches of relict organic matter (dark gray within matrix of stilbite (medium gray) and calcite (light gray); (C) interlocking crystals of stilbite (medium gray) and calcite (light gray); (D) Backscattered electron image of the same field of view, showing prismatic crystal habit. Specimens provided by Jim Mills.
Figure 31.
SEM images of Mount Elgon fossil wood. (A) Exterior view of limb showing relict wood grain texture mineralized with stilbite; (B) patches of relict organic matter (dark gray within matrix of stilbite (medium gray) and calcite (light gray); (C) interlocking crystals of stilbite (medium gray) and calcite (light gray); (D) Backscattered electron image of the same field of view, showing prismatic crystal habit. Specimens provided by Jim Mills.
Figure 32.
Solubility of calcite and silica at 25°C. Data adapted from [
81,
82].
Figure 32.
Solubility of calcite and silica at 25°C. Data adapted from [
81,
82].
Figure 33.
Precipitation of calcite and dolomite, pH = 7. Data adapted from [
83].
Figure 33.
Precipitation of calcite and dolomite, pH = 7. Data adapted from [
83].
Figure 34.
Phase diagram for common iron sulfide and oxide minerals. Reprinted from [
38].
Figure 34.
Phase diagram for common iron sulfide and oxide minerals. Reprinted from [
38].
Figure 35.
Phase relations for iron mineral in lacustrine environments. Plot based on data from [
85,
86]. Stability fields are affected by elemental availability, e.g., sulfides pyrite and pyrhottite precipitation requires sulfur, vivianite requires phosphorous.
Figure 35.
Phase relations for iron mineral in lacustrine environments. Plot based on data from [
85,
86]. Stability fields are affected by elemental availability, e.g., sulfides pyrite and pyrhottite precipitation requires sulfur, vivianite requires phosphorous.
Figure 36.
Pleistocene wood coated with vivianite, Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O, locality unknown.
Figure 36.
Pleistocene wood coated with vivianite, Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O, locality unknown.
Table 1.
Woods mineralized with carbonate minerals.
Table 1.
Woods mineralized with carbonate minerals.
Mineralization | Age | Location | Reference |
---|
Calcite | Jurassic | Lucków, Poland | [5] |
Calcite | Cretaceous | Isle of Wight, England | [2] |
Calcite | Cretaceous | Kansas, USA | [6] |
Calcite | Eocene | Geiseltal, Germany | [7] |
Calcite | Eocene | British Columbia, Canada | This report |
Calcite | Eocene | Ellesmere Island Arctic Canada | [8] |
Calcite | Miocene | Washington, USA | [9] |
Calcite | Neogene | Florida, USA | [1] |
Calcite | Pliocene | Dunrobba, Italy | [10] |
Calcite | Pleistocene | California, USA | [11,12] |
Calcite | Pleistocene | Weimar, Germany | [13] |
Calcite | Pleistocene | California, USA | [14,15] |
Calcite | Pleistocene | Northern Iceland | [16] |
Dolomite | unknown | Germany | [17] |
Dolomite | unknown | Hungary | [18] |
Dolomite | Eocene | Washington, USA | This report |
Table 2.
Major element composition of dolomitized wood from Eocene Puget Group, King County, Washington, USA, determined by SEM/EDS.
Table 2.
Major element composition of dolomitized wood from Eocene Puget Group, King County, Washington, USA, determined by SEM/EDS.
Issaquah |
---|
Oxide | Weight % | Atomic % |
---|
MgO | 32.6 | 41.2 |
Al2O3 | 4.8 | 2.4 |
SiO2 | 5.3 | 4.5 |
CaO | 55.7 | 51.9 |
Fe2O3 * | 0 | 0 |
Black Diamond Coal Mine |
MgO | 29.8 | 38.1 |
Al2O3 | 0.74 | 0.38 |
SiO2 | 3.6 | 3.1 |
CaO | 56.3 | 51.7 |
Fe2O3 * | 0.52 | 6.8 |
Table 3.
Phosphatized wood occurrences.
Table 3.
Phosphatized wood occurrences.
Location | Age | Setting | Reference |
---|
Foy, France | Carboniferous | Continental | [2] |
Illinois, USA | Jurassic | Continental | [25] |
Svalbard, Boreal Realm | Jurassic | Marine | [21,22] |
Swindon, England | Jurassic | Marine | [10] |
Antarctica | Cretaceous | Continental | [26] |
Winterswijk, Netherlands | Cretaceous | Continental | [2] |
New Mexico, USA | Cretaceous | Continental | [27] |
California, USA | Eocene | Continental | [28] |
Australia | Miocene/Oligocene | Continental | [23] |
Nevada, USA | Miocene | Continental | [28] |
Idaho, USA | Miocene | Continental | [28] |
Mt. Elgon, Uganda | Miocene/Pliocene | Continental | [29] |
Florida, USA | Neogene | Continental | [28] |
Republic of Chad | Pliocene/Pleistocene | Continental | [30] |
Northern Iceland | Pleistocene | Continental | [16] |
Pacific sea floor | Holocene | Marine | [23] |
Table 4.
Woods mineralized with iron or iron/manganese.
Table 4.
Woods mineralized with iron or iron/manganese.
Mineralization | Age | Location | Reference |
---|
Pyrite | Permian | Guadalajara, Spain | [33] |
Pyrite | Devonian | Hunsrück, Germany | [34,35] |
Pyrite | Devonian | Western France | [36,37] |
Pyrite | Paleocene | Colorado, USA | [38] |
Pyrite | Eocene | California, USA | This report |
Pyrite | Eocene | Kent, England | [39,40] |
Pyrite | Eocene | Louisiana, USA | [41] |
Marcasite | Miocene | Dresden, Germany | [42] |
Pyrite | Pliocene | Alméria, Spain | [43] |
Pyrite | Holocene | Georgia, USA | [44] |
Pyrite & Hematite | Cretaceous | Hautrage, Belgium | [2] |
Iron oxide | Cretaceous | Oklahoma, USA | This report |
Iron oxide | Cretaceous | Montana, USA | This report |
Iron oxide | Pliocene | California, USA | This report |
Iron oxide | Quaternary | Siberia, USSR | [2] |
Goethite | unknown | unknown | [45] |
Goethite | unknown | Australia | [46] |
Goethite | Jurassic | Luków, Poland | [47] |
Goetite | Permian | Saiwan, Oman | [4] |
Goethite | Eocene | British Columbia, Canada | This report |
Goethite & Hematite | Eocene | Cairo, Egypt | [48] |
Goethite & Hematite | Pliocene | Dunrobba, Italy | [47] |
Goethite & Lepidocrocite | Oligocene | Düsseldorf, Germany | [2] |
Goethite & Lepidocrocite | Pleistocene | Ugchelen, The Netherlands | [2] |
Siderite | unknown | Siegen, Germany | [2] |
Siderite | unknown | Australia | [2] |
Siderite | Pennsylvanian | Illinois & Indiana, USA | [49,50] |
Siderite | Paleocene | Alaska, USA | [51] |
Siderite | Paleogene | Alaska, USA | [52] |
Siderite | Neogene | Alaska, USA | [53] |
Siderite & Hematite | unknown | Niederpleis, Germany | [2] |
Siderite & Pyrite | Pleistocene | Oosterbeck, The Netherlands | [2] |
Hollandite & limonite * | Jurassic | Transnubia, Hungary | [53] |
Mn-Fe oxide | Miocene | Nevada, USA | This report |
Table 5.
SEM/EDS data for Mn-Fe oxide fossil wood from Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA.
Table 5.
SEM/EDS data for Mn-Fe oxide fossil wood from Virgin Valley, Nevada, USA.
| Analysis 1 | Analysis 2 | Mean |
---|
Element | Weight % | Atomic % | Weight % | Atomic % | Weight % | Atomic % |
---|
Si | 1.9 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 2.9 | 2.2 | 2.7 |
Ca | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.5 |
Mn | 45.9 | 23.3 | 40.4 | 25.1 | 43.2 | 25.2 |
Fe | 25.0 | 15.1 | 31.3 | 19.1 | 28.2 | 17.1 |
O | 24.4 | 51.6 | 24.2 | 51.5 | 24.3 | 51.5 |
Table 6.
SEM/EDS analysis of yellow mineral in colla wood.
Table 6.
SEM/EDS analysis of yellow mineral in colla wood.
Element | Analysis 1 | Analysis 2 | Analysis 3 | Average |
---|
Weight % | Atomic % | Weight % | Atomic % | Weight % | Atomic % | Weight % | Atomic % |
---|
O | 20.4 | 48.1 | 20.9 | 48.7 | 27.2 | 55.6 | 22.8 | 50.8 |
Al | 0.20 | 0.28 | 0.34 | 0.47 | 0.64 | 0.78 | 0.39 | 0.51 |
Si | 0.82 | 1.09 | 1.07 | 1.42 | 3.61 | 4.21 | 2.11 | 2.24 |
As | 1.13 | 0.57 | 1.12 | 0.56 | 1.39 | 0.61 | 1.21 | 0.58 |
Ti | 2.03 | 1.59 | 1.96 | 1.53 | 8.48 | 5.80 | 4.16 | 2.97 |
Fe | 2.90 | 1.95 | 2.06 | 1.37 | 0.93 | 0.54 | 1.96 | 1.29 |
Cu | 48.8 | 29.9 | 49.3 | 28.3 | 37.0 | 19.1 | 45.0 | 25.8 |
V | 23.7 | 17.5 | 24.2 | 17.7 | 20.8 | 13.4 | 22.9 | 18.4 |
Cu:V | | 3.4:2 | | 3.2:2 | | 2.8:2 | | 2.8:2 |