Updating the Path to a Carbon-Neutral Built Environment—What Should a Single Builder Do
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Results: Extended Feasibility Assessment Procedure for Residential Energy Supply Solutions
3.1. Recognizing the Basis for the Energy Supply Design
3.2. Extended Consideration of Opportunities and Risks for Life Cycle Economy in a Changing Operational Environment
4. Verification of the Procedure at the Pilot Case
4.1. Recognizing Basis for the Energy Supply Design
4.2. Defining the Energy Demand of Spaces
4.3. Choosing Optional Energy Supply System Solutions for Comparison
4.4. Feasibility Assessment and Revising of Design Solutions
4.5. Comparison of the Alternative Energy Solutions
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1. Recognizing basis for the energy supply design | Builder’s personal performance targets: - Energy class - Indoor climate quality - Energy economy (Self-production, prosumer options, self-sufficiency, demand-response, energy saving) - Economy - Other preferences | Municipality-specific availability of energy supply and prosumer options - Available services -Regulatory constraints by municipal authority | ||
2. Choosing optional energy supply system solutions for comparison | ||||
Extended consideration of opportunities and risks for life cycle feasibility in changing operational environment | ||||
Costs | Investment driven design process | + Life cycle driven design process (extension to investment driven process) | ||
Investment & installation: - Chosen on-site energy supply equipment & related installation work accounting interest rate - Connection fees Utilization: - Prices for purchased energy and fuels using current prices with constant annual increase / decrease - Maintenance & replacement of the on-site energy supply equipment | Utilization: - Prices for purchase energy (Electricity & heat: generation and network) and fuels: Development of available energy pricing schemes, effect of increasing peak demand volatility on electricity Spot prices / capacity charges / peak power charges, increasing maintenance fees, development of fuel market price. - Costs development of replaceable electricity & heat supply equipment costs - GHG reduction oriented economic steering: Taxes, charges, emission trading or similar tradable permit schemes for households, other. Net emissions with potential LCC impact: Emissions of purchased energy and fuels used by the building / Abated emissions by selling excess self-produced energy to the grid / Emissions related with maintenance & replacement of the on-site energy supply equipment | |||
Revenues/savings | Investment & installation: - GHG emission reductions for marketing purposes: Manufacturing, transportation and installation of the on-site energy supply equipment Utilization: - Revenues for energy sales to the grid and demand response using current prices with constant annual increase / decrease - GHG emission reductions for marketing purposes | Investment & installation: - GHG reduction oriented economic steering: Subsidies Utilization: - Revenues for electricity & heat sales to the grid and demand response: Development of available pricing schemes, effect of increasing peak demand volatility on electricity Spot prices. - Business service models: Roof leasing for PV production, other. - Technological development of demand response solutions - GHG reduction oriented economic steering: Subsidies, feed-in tariff, tax credits, green certification, tradable permit schemes for households, other. Net emissions with potential LCC impact: Emissions of purchased energy and fuels used by the building / Abated emissions by selling excess self-produced energy to the grid / Emissions related with maintenance & replacement of the on-site energy supply equipment | ||
Net. (€ With energy to the grid and demand response related revenues accounted) Defining energy demand of spaces (heat & electricity) Temperature, humidity and air quality comfort: Heat / electricity demand- Building envelope (U-values, air tightness, hygroscopic performance) - Ventilation (Air filtration, heating, humidity removal; pressure difference control) - Heat recovery from ventilation (Recuperative or regenerative: Ventilation-to-ventilation / Heat pump: ventilation-to-central water heating) - Heat distribution system (Central water heating / air heating; low / high temperature; floor / radiator / roof heating) - Cooling (Air conditioning, ground source cooling, district cooling) Lighting comfort: Heat / Electricity demand - Lighting equipment (incl. daylighting) - Lighting control Domestic hot water: Heat / electricity demand - Water saving solutions - Water distribution solutions - Wastewater heat recovery Domestic appliances: Heat / Electricity demand Electric vehicles: Electricity demand | ||||
Proposing energy supply solutions (heat & electricity) Heat and electricity production technologies: renewable solar energy self-production (maximized annual / even production), heat pumps, fossil fuel / biofuel burners, fireplaces with or without heat retention, renewable / non-renewable from the grid, other. Smart prosumer and demand response solutions: - Smart metering allowing dynamic pricing of purchase and sales energy - Bi-directional heat and electric grid connections allowing sales of energy to the grid - Smart control devices allowing to shift energy demand to off-peak periods (controls: energy consumption, self-produced energy own use / sales, energy storage charging / discharging) - IoT solutions allowing control of devices energy use based on real time online energy price data - Heat and electricity storages reducing peak demand and / or maximizing use of self-produced energy (water tank, in-house battery, electric vehicles, other) Reservations for technologies to be applied in the future: Reservations of space, piping, electric / data wiring, other. | ||||
Estimating solution-specific purchase/sales energy balance → Purchase energy demand (for each energy source and fuels): → Energy to the grid: → Peak power: | ||||
3. Feasibility assessment and revising of design solutions | ||||
4. Selecting the optimal energy supply solution | ||||
Fields shaded white | = Conventional design process | Fields shaded green | = Extension to conventional design process |
Life Cycle | 30 a | Life Cycle Costs | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy Balance | Energy Costs | ||||
Calculated energy demand (heat & electricity): | 22,400 kWh/a | Energy certificate | Electricity price (Spot, incl. Tax) | 0.04 €/kWh | Nordpool 2016 average [62] |
Heat provided with GS heat pump | 12,000 kWh/a | Energy certificate | Annual electricity price increase | 3% | Finnish 10 year average [62] |
Energy produced by fireplaces | 3000 kWh/a | Derived from the energy balance of solution 4 | Electricity transmission price (incl. Tax) | 0.06 €/kWh | 2016 average [62] |
Solution 4 (first year) | Annual electricity transmission price increase | 4.6% | Finnish 10 year average [16] | ||
Solar electricity production | 16,500 kWh/a | Measured | Firewood price | 0.06 €/kWh | [63] |
Solar electricity for own use | 2608 kWh/a | Measured | |||
Purchase electricity | 4850 kWh/a | Measured | Capital costs of equipment with installation included (VAT 0%) | ||
Electricity sale | 13,400 kWh/a | Measured | Ground source heat pump | 6023 € | [64,65] |
Solar electricity own use | 2600 kWh/a | Measured | Borehole | 24 €/m | [66] |
Solution 3 (first year) | PV panels | 1270 €/kWp | [67] | ||
Inverter | 80 €/kWp | [64,65] | |||
Solar electricity production | 4000 kWh/a | Scaled from measured | Fireplaces (baking oven) | 5900 €/pcs | [64,65] |
Solar electricity for own use | 2400 kWh/a | Scaled from measured | Fireplaces (stove) | 4200 €/pcs | [64,65] |
Purchase electricity | 5000 kWh/a | Scaled from measured | Central water heating system | 18.91 €/brm2 | [64,65] |
Electricity sale | 1500 kWh/a | Scaled from measured | Heat storage tank | 2280 €/pcs | [66] |
Solar electricity own use | 2400 kWh/a | Scaled from measured | Electric grid connection fee | 2350 € | [68] |
Annual reduction in PV production performance | 0.5% | [69] | VAT | 24% | Finnish VAT in 2018 |
Loan interest rate | 2% | Euribor 20 year average | |||
Maintenance costs of equipment: | |||||
GHG emissions | Sweeping chimneys | 62 €/a | (Average by local service providers) | ||
Energy source-specific GHG emission factors (gCO2ekv./kWh) | Replacement costs | Equals to capital costs | VAT 24% | ||
Electricity (Purchase) | 175.1 | Finnish grid average [70] | Technical service life of equipment (years): | ||
Electricity (Self-produced PV) | 0 | Renewable source | |||
Electricity sales to the grid (Abated emissions) | 175.1 | [70] | Ground source heat pump unit | 25 a | [23,71] |
Firewood | 0 | Renewable source, fuel production emissions not considered | Borehole | 100 a | [23] |
Other GHG emissions | PV panels | 30 a | [23] | ||
Inverter | 15 a | [72] | |||
Manufacturing of equipment | Not considered | Assumed equal for all examined solutions | Fireplaces/chimneys | 50 a | [64,65,73] |
Installation of equipment | Not considered | Assumed equal for all examined solutions | Central water heating system | 60 a | [64,65,73,74] |
Maintenance of equipment | Not considered | Assumed equal for all examined solutions | Heat storage tank | 30 a | [66,73,74] |
Emissions of fuel production chain | Not considered |
1. Recognizing basis for the energy supply design | Builder’s personal performance targets (Single family hillside log house): Energy class: Net annual zero energy, energy certificate class A. Indoor climate quality: High indoor climate quality with ventilation air filtration, cooling, low-emission furniture and materials (Class M1), vapor permeability of structures. Economy: Minimizing operational costs and ensuring resale value of the investment - Preparation for risks related to future energy pricing: Reduction of peak power demand and minimization of purchase energy demand with renewable energy self-production, energy efficient solutions and demand response solutions. - Preparation for potential opportunities / risks related to low-carbon oriented economic steering: Utilization of RE and low-carbon energy supply solutions and sales of RE to the grid. Other preferences: Reduction of GHG emissions, simple and safe structures, long service life, hygroscopic performance, air tightness, heat capacity. | Municipality-specific availability of energy supply and prosumer options: Available services: Electric grid available Sales of electricity to the grid available Prosumer options: No restrictions for ground source (GS) heat No restrictions for solar electricity and heat No restrictions for wind electricity | ||||
2. Choosing optional energy supply system solutions for comparison | Defining energy demand of spaces (heat & electricity): Temperature, humidity and air quality comfort: - Building envelope: Main floor wall: 275 mm laminated log with flax insulation between logs, U value 0.41 W/ (m2K). Basement floor wall: 400 mm insulated concrete block, U-value 0.17 W/ (m2K). Ground-supported floor: concrete with 200 mm XPS insulation, U-value 0.15 W/ (m2K). Wood framed roof: 500 mm wood fiber insulation with air barrier paper, U-value 0.08 W/ (m2K). Windows: directed South to promote passive solar heat gain at winter, U-value 0.8–0.82 W/ (m2K). Doors: U-value 0.6–0.75 W/ (m2K). Long eaves and large glazed balcony to prevent direct sunshine at summer reducing cooling demand, organic insulations and vapor permeable paints promoting hygroscopic performance of structure. - Ventilation: Fan assisted ventilation (inlet/outlet) with rotary heat exchanger (annual average heat recovery efficiency >70%), Pre-cooling or pre-heating supply air with GS heat pump. Electric reheat coil. - Heat distribution system: Central low-temperature water heating with floor distribution allowing operation of GS heat pump with higher efficiency. DHW circulation in toilets with motion sensor control reducing heat losses. Cooling: Air conditioning (AC) Lighting comfort: Energy efficient LED lighting. Motion and illuminance controlled outdoor and toilet lighting. Domestic appliances: Energy efficient appliances with minimum A+ energy class. → Calculated energy demand (heat & electricity): 22,400 kWh/a | |||||
Proposed energy supply solutions (heat & electricity): Demand response solutions (common to all proposed solutions): - Energy storage: Two level heat storage water tank (750 l) (lower part for heating and DHW pre-heating; upper part for DHW), 1-day storage period for DHW. Heat retention by structural mass of fireplaces, chimney and massive block structures of building. - Smart energy use control: Automation allowing scheduling energy use, such as GS heat pump, to periods with low Spot-electricity price and high self-production. Reservations for technologies to be applied in the future: Data wire from garage to technical space allowing smart charging of electricity storage and electric vehicle in the future. Electrical storage and electrical vehicle would allow increasing own use of self-produced cheap renewable electricity. Heat and electricity production technologies: | ||||||
Solution 1 (reference): Direct electric heating Three heat retention fireplaces | Solution 2: Solution 1 + Ground source heat pump (6 kW) | Solution 3: Solution 2 + Solar PV panels (5kWp) Prosumer’s bi-directional grid connection | Solution 4: Solution 2 + Solar PV panels (21.1 kWp) Prosumer’s bi-directional grid connection | |||
→ Purchase energy demand (Life cycle): | Electricity 581,500 kWh, Firewood 90,000 kWh | Electricity 224,000 kWh Firewood 90,000 kWh | Electricity 155,500 kWh, Firewood 90,000 kWh | Electricity 151,000 kWh, Firewood 90,000 kWh | ||
→ Energy to the grid (Life cycle): | Electricity 42,500 kWh | Electricity 392,000 kWh | ||||
3. Feasibility assessment of design solutions(30 years) | Investment & installation | Costs (VAT 24 %) | Heat distribution/storage system: 7300 € Fireplaces: 12,500 € Electric grid connection fee: 2900 € | Ground source heat pump system: 13,500 € Fireplaces: 12,500 € Heat distribution/storage system: 7300 € Electric grid connection fee: 2900 € | Ground source heat pump system: 13,500 € Solar PV panels: 8400 € Fireplaces: 12,500 € Heat distribution/storage system: 7300 € Electric grid connection fee: 2900 € | Ground source heat pump system: 13,500 € Solar PV system: 35,000 € Fireplaces: 12,500 € Heat distribution/storage system: 7300 € Electric grid connection fee: 2900 € |
Total (Interest 2 %): 28,000 € | Total (Interest 2 %): 44,500 € | Total (Interest 2 %): 54,700 € | Total (Interest 2 %): 87,700 € | |||
GHG emissions | Manufacturing / installation: Not considered | Manufacturing / installation: Not considered | Manufacturing / installation: Not considered | Manufacturing / installation: Not considered | ||
Utilization & maintenance | Costs (All taxes) | Maintenance/replacements: 1800 € Purchased electricity: 111,400 € Purchased firewood: 5600 € | Maintenance/replacements: 7300 € Purchased electricity: 55,000 € Purchased firewood: 5600 € | Maintenance/replacements: 9300 € Purchased electricity: 38,400 € Sold electricity: 2700 € Purchased firewood: 5600 € | Maintenance/replacements: 9300 € Purchased electricity: 37,200 € Sold electricity: 24,800 € Purchased firewood: 5600 € | |
Total: 118,800 € | Total: 67,900 € | Total: 50,600 € | Total: 27,300 € | |||
GHG emissions | Energy use emissions: 101,800 t (CO2e) Maintenance emissions: Not considered | Energy use emissions: 39,200 t (CO2e) Maintenance emissions: Not considered | Energy use emissions: 27,250 t (CO2e) Abated emissions by selling excess self-produced renewables: 7400 t (CO2e) Maintenance emissions: Not considered | Energy use emissions: 26,400 t (CO2e) Abated emissions by selling excess self-produced renewables: 68,700 t (CO2e) Maintenance emissions: Not considered | ||
Total: 101,800 t (CO2e) | Total: 39,200 t (CO2e) | Total: 19,850 t (CO2e) | Total: −42,300 t (CO2e) | |||
Net | Costs (All taxes) | 146,500 € | 112,400 € | 105,300 € | 115,000 € | |
GHG emissions | 101,800 t (CO2e) | 39,200 t (CO2e) | Net: 19,850 t (CO2e) | Net: −42,300 t (CO2e) |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Vinokurov, M.; Grönman, K.; Kosonen, A.; Luoranen, M.; Soukka, R. Updating the Path to a Carbon-Neutral Built Environment—What Should a Single Builder Do. Buildings 2018, 8, 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8080112
Vinokurov M, Grönman K, Kosonen A, Luoranen M, Soukka R. Updating the Path to a Carbon-Neutral Built Environment—What Should a Single Builder Do. Buildings. 2018; 8(8):112. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8080112
Chicago/Turabian StyleVinokurov, Mihail, Kaisa Grönman, Antti Kosonen, Mika Luoranen, and Risto Soukka. 2018. "Updating the Path to a Carbon-Neutral Built Environment—What Should a Single Builder Do" Buildings 8, no. 8: 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8080112