The Implications of Climate Zones on the Cost-Optimal Level and Cost-Effectiveness of Building Envelope Energy Renovation and Space Heat Demand Reduction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of the Research Area
3. Methods
3.1. General Approach
- (i)
- energy balance simulation of the case study building;
- (ii)
- assuming identical buildings in different climate zones and performing energy balance simulation;
- (iii)
- considering the energy efficiency measures for the energy renovation of the building envelope in different climate zones and estimating the implementation cost;
- (iv)
- performing the cost-optimization of energy renovation for each individual component of the building envelope, i.e., windows, basement walls, exterior walls and attic floor;
- (v)
- analyzing the implications of different discount rates on the optimum measures in different climate zones;
- (vi)
- cost-effectiveness evaluation of building envelope energy renovation.
3.2. Climate Zones in Sweden
3.3. Case Study Building
3.4. Energy Balance Simulation
3.5. Building Envelope Renovation and Energy Efficiency Measures
3.6. Cost-Optimization and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
3.6.1. Discount Rate
3.6.2. District Heating (DH) Price
3.6.3. Annual Increase in DH Price
3.6.4. Remaining Lifespan of the Building after Renovation
3.6.5. The Cost Estimation for Renovation Work
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Reduced Heat Demand Due to Improving the Thermal Transmittance of Building Envelope
4.2. Optimum Measures
4.3. Discount Rate Contribution to Optimum Measures
4.4. The Cost-Effectiveness of Optimum Energy Renovation
4.5. The Final Energy Saving of Space Heat Demand
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
ACH | Air change rate per hour (h−1) |
DH | District heating |
EEM | Energy efficiency measure |
EPS | Expanded polystyrene |
GWP | Global warming potential |
HDD | Heating degree day (°C) |
HVAC | Heating, ventilating and air conditioning |
LCA | Life cycle analysis |
LCC | Life cycle cost |
LCCF | Life cycle carbon footprint |
LCIA | Life cycle impact assessment |
MFD | Multi-family dwelling |
NPV | Net present value (€) |
NPP | Net present profit (€) |
N/A | Not available |
N/S | Not specified |
OPERA | Optimal energy retrofit advisory |
PV | photovoltaic |
RB | Representative building |
SBO | Simulation-based optimization |
SFD | Single-family dwelling |
U-value | Thermal transmittance (W/m2K) |
λ-value | Thermal conductivity (W/mK) |
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Ref. # | Building Type | Vintage and Location of Building | Building Energy Modelling or Calculation Method | Energy Retrofit Measures (e.g., Additional Insulation) | Retrofit Profitability Assessment Method | Optimisation Method | Lifespan After Renovation (Years) | Sensitivity Analysis of Economic Parameters | Applicability of the Study (e.g., Geographically and Building Type) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[21] | MFD | 1967, Sweden | VIP-Energy (transient, whole building energy model) | Exterior walls, attic floor, basement walls, new windows | N/A | Marginal cost difference | 40, 50 and 60 (sensitivity analysis) | Different discount rates and energy price increase | Southern Sweden; MFDs with similar characteristics |
[31] | Three detached houses and two terraced dwelling | Detached house after 1973. Other houses before 1973, Belgium | Calculation: space heat demand based on energy performance regulations and EN832 | Roof slab, exterior walls, floor, new windows, PV panels, heating systems | NPV of energy cost for space heating and investment | NPV of costs and benefits due to implementing energy retrofit measures. | 30 | N/A | Belgium; building stock of Belgium (RB) |
[16] | SFD, MFD | 1960–2005, Entire Sweden | ECCABS (whole building energy model, transient) | Exterior walls, attic floor, basement, new windows, lights, ventilation (heat recovery), lowering indoor air temperature | Net annual cost | N/A | Different lifespans for different measures (e.g., 30–40 years for different components) | Energy price development and discount rate | Sweden; Swedish residential building stock (RB) |
[23] | Multi-story school buildings | 1945–1990 Alpine region | Calculated based on ÖNORM 8110-5 (Austrian standard) | Building envelope insulation and four different heating systems | NPV of saved heat demand | NPV of saved heat demand | 30 | Energy price, its increase, renovation cost | Alpine region; school buildings with similar characteristics |
[25] | MFD | 1960–1980 Malmö, Sweden | OPERA (Optimal energy retrofit advisory) | Attic floor and external wall, new windows and heating systems | NPV | NPV | 50 | Energy price annual increments | Southern Sweden; MFDs with similar characteristics |
[27] | MFD | 1900–1950, Estonia | IDA (transient, whole building energy model) | Attic floor, facade and basement floor, new doors and window | NPV | NPV | 20 | N/A | Estonia; wooden buildings, from same vintage (RB) |
[28] | MFD | 1970, Northern Spain | N/S | Insulation of envelope, heating system and ventilation | NPV of LCC | NPV of LCC | 60 | N/A | Spain; MFD constructed during 1940–1980 |
[33] | MFD | 1960, Northern Spain | TRNSYS (transient, whole building energy model) | Façade and roof and new windows | NPV | N/A | 30 | N/A | Spain; MFD of similar characteristics |
[20] | MFD | Vintage N/S, Norrköping, Sweden | Calculation, using heating degree day | Attic floor insulation and heat pump of different sizes | PV | PV | 50 | Energy price | Sweden, Norrköping, MFD with similar characteristics |
[34] | SFD, MFD | 1950–1970, Italy | National values of final energy use | Two levels of standard and advanced renovation of walls, roof and windows; HVAC and energy systems | N/A | N/S | N/S | N/A | Italy; building from same vintage (RB) |
[24] | MFD | 1976 to 1982 Portugal | N/S | Different heating systems, renewable energy source, insulation of wall, roof and floor and new windows | Global cost (i.e., NPV of energy cost + renovation cost) | Global cost (i.e., NPV of energy cost + renovation cost) | N/A | Different discount rates | Portugal; buildings with similar characteristic |
[35] | Detached house | Vintage N/A; Central Greece | N/S | Roof, external wall, basement, new doors and windows, heating system, lighting, electric appliances and cooling system. | NPV; internal rate of return; savings to investment ratio; depreciated payback period | N/A | Between 10–30 years, depending upon the measures | Discount rates between 4% and 8% | Central Greece; detached houses with similar characteristics |
[36] | MFD | 1995, East coast of China | Doe-2 (transient, whole building energy model) | New windows, adding insulation on roof and exterior walls, paining facade with light colour, closing the external staircase | LCC calculation | N/A | 40 | N/A | East coast of China; buildings with similar characteristics |
[37] | MFD | Row houses from 1973, Apartment buildings from 1963–1973, Sweden | IDA (transient, whole building energy model) | Attic floor, exterior walls, 3-glazed windows, balanced ventilation with heat exchanger | N/S | N/A | 50 | N/A | Sweden, Stockholm; buildings with similar characteristics |
[38] | Residential, hospital and educational buildings | From 1880–1980, Northern Greece | N/S | Adding insulation on exterior walls and roof and new windows and heating system | Depreciated payback period and saving to investment ratio | N/A | 70 | Yes;energy price variation | Northern Greece; Buildings with similar characteristics |
[39] | Single-family house | Vintage N/S, Italy | N/S | Roof and walls insulation, heating systems, solar collector, and windows | Global cost based on NPV | Global cost based on NPV | 30 | N/A | East coast of Italy; Buildings with similar characteristics |
[40] | Two typical School buildings | Before and after 2000, Tehran, Iran | Designbuilder (transient, whole building energy model) | Better insulation, new windows, shading, BMS and solar energy | Payback time | N/A | Not applicable | N/A | Iran, Tehran; School buildings from the same vintages (RB) |
[41] | Brick apartment building | 1960, Finland | IDA (transient, whole building energy model) | Exterior walls and roof, new windows, different energy system and HVAC systems | NPV of LCC during lifespan vs initial investment cost | SBO, using multi-objective building performance optimization | 25 | Interest rates of 3% and 7% | Finland; brick apartment buildings with similar characteristics |
[42] | Educational buildings | 1960s and 1970s, Finland | IDA (transient, whole building energy model) | Exterior walls and roof, New windows, Energy systems | NPV of LCC during lifespan vs initial investment cost | Minimization of NPV of LCC, using SBO | 20 | Energy price increase of 2%, 5%, 8% and 9% | Finland; Educational buildings, during 1960 to 1979 (RB) |
[43] | MFD | Before 2000 (1990s), Turkey | Energy plus (transient, whole building energy model) | Insulation on building envelope and replacing windows | LCC analysis | N/A | 50 years as total lifespan of buildings | N/A | Turkey; MFD with similar characteristics |
[44] | Office buildings | Between 1920 and 1970, South of Italy | Energy plus (transient, whole building energy model) | EEMs of building envelope, HVAC and renewable energy sources | Global cost saving (primary energy saving and investment cost) | Global cost saving (primary energy saving and investment cost) | 20 | Incentives for PV panel installation | Southern Italy, office buildings, between 1920 and 1970 (RB) |
[45] | MFD | 50-year old building, South Africa | N/S | EEMs for envelope components (windows, roof walls) and solar panels on roof | NPV of energy saving and retrofit cost | Payback period | 24 | Discount rates of 9% and 8.1% | South Africa, MFDs with similar characteristics |
[46] | MFD | Italy | TRNSYS (transient, whole building energy model) | EEMs for building envelope components and heating and ventilation system | N/A | Multi-objective optimization: Genetic algorithm | 30 | Windows orientation, building compactness and location | Milan and Messina of Italy; MFDs with similar characteristics |
[47] | MFD | Sheffield, England, late 1950s | Energy plus (transient, whole building energy model) | Building envelope insulation and windows replacement | N/A | Multi-objective Genetic algorithm to minimize LCCF and LCC | 60 | Two heating systems | England, Sheffield; MFDs with similar characteristics |
This study | MFD | 1967, Sweden | VIP-Energy (transient, whole building energy model) | Exterior walls, attic floor and basement walls and new windows | NPP (net present profit) | NPP (net present profit) | 50 | Discount rates of 1%, 3%, 5%, Climate zones of Sweden | Sweden; all Swedish climate zones; MFDs from same vintage |
Façade Orientation | The Area (m2) | Components | U-Value (W/m2K) |
---|---|---|---|
South facade | 160 | 70 mm of lightweight concrete + 100 mm of mineral wool + 120 mm of brick cladding | 0.29 |
North facade | 220 | ||
West facade | 107 | 140 mm of ordinary concrete + 100 mm of mineral wool + 120 mm of brick cladding | 0.34 |
East facade | 107 |
Façade Orientation | The Area (m2); above the Ground Level | The Area (m2); below the Ground Level | Components | U-Value (W/m2K) |
---|---|---|---|---|
South facade | 38 | 110 | 300 mm of ordinary concrete + 50 mm of mineral wool | 0.63 |
North facade | 22 | |||
West facade | 12 | |||
East facade | 18 |
Façade Orientation | The Area (m2) | U-value (W/m2K) |
---|---|---|
South facade | 127 | 2.9 |
North facade | 55 | |
West facade | 7.5 | |
East facade | 6.5 |
The Components | The Area (m2) | Components | U-value (W/m2K) |
---|---|---|---|
Attic floor (the slab) | 400 | 200 mm of ordinary concrete and 150 mm of mineral wool | 0.25 |
Building Envelope Components | Energy Efficiency Measures | The Range of Considered Thicknesses (mm) for Additional Insulation and U-values (W/m2K) for New Windows |
---|---|---|
Exterior walls of the facade | Additional mineral wool (λ-value = 0.034 W/mK) | 45–340 |
Basement walls | Additional insulation panel of EPS (λ-value = 0.039 W/mK) | 70–300 |
Attic floor | Additional mineral wool (λ-value = 0.037 W/mK) | 50–500 |
Windows | Changing existing windows and replacing with more efficient windows | 1.2–0.6 |
Energy Efficiency Measure for Exterior Walls | Final Energy Demand for Space Heating, kWh/year | NPV of Final Energy Price for Space Heating (50 years), € | Investment Cost (cost of the measures’ implementation), € | NPV of Saved Energy (50 years), € | NPP, € |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Initial state (Climate Zone 4) | 120,117 | 310,670 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
45 mm mineral wool | 110,275 | 285,215 | 87,000 | 25,455 | −61,545 |
70 mm mineral wool | 107,374 | 277,712 | 88,400 | 32,958 | −55,442 |
95 mm mineral wool | 105,287 | 272,315 | 89,500 | 38,355 | −51,145 |
120 mm mineral wool | 103,704 | 268,219 | 90,400 | 42,451 | −47,949 |
145 mm mineral wool | 102,460 | 265,003 | 91,600 | 45,666 | −45,934 |
170 mm mineral wool | 101,469 | 262,439 | 92,700 | 48,231 | −44,469 |
195 mm mineral wool | 100,640 | 260,295 | 94,100 | 50,375 | −43,725 |
215 mm mineral wool | 100,018 | 258,687 | 95,600 | 51,982 | −43,618 |
240 mm mineral wool | 994,56 | 257,233 | 97,500 | 53,437 | −44,063 |
265 mm mineral wool | 98,938 | 255,893 | 99,300 | 54,777 | −44,523 |
290 mm mineral wool | 98,479 | 254,707 | 100,900 | 55,963 | −44,937 |
340 mm mineral wool | 98,006 | 253,482 | 102,900 | 57,188 | −45,712 |
Climate Zone | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Discount Rate | 1 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 5 |
Attic floor | 350 | 250 | 150 | 320 | 250 | 120 | 300 | 220 | 100 | 290 | 200 | 100 |
Basement walls | 210 | 190 | 160 | 200 | 180 | 150 | 200 | 170 | 140 | 190 | 160 | 120 |
Exterior walls | 290 | 260 | 240 | 280 | 250 | 230 | 270 | 240 | 220 | 260 | 220 | 200 |
Windows | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 |
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Bonakdar, F.; Sasic Kalagasidis, A.; Mahapatra, K. The Implications of Climate Zones on the Cost-Optimal Level and Cost-Effectiveness of Building Envelope Energy Renovation and Space Heat Demand Reduction. Buildings 2017, 7, 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings7020039
Bonakdar F, Sasic Kalagasidis A, Mahapatra K. The Implications of Climate Zones on the Cost-Optimal Level and Cost-Effectiveness of Building Envelope Energy Renovation and Space Heat Demand Reduction. Buildings. 2017; 7(2):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings7020039
Chicago/Turabian StyleBonakdar, Farshid, Angela Sasic Kalagasidis, and Krushna Mahapatra. 2017. "The Implications of Climate Zones on the Cost-Optimal Level and Cost-Effectiveness of Building Envelope Energy Renovation and Space Heat Demand Reduction" Buildings 7, no. 2: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings7020039