Neurostimulating Architecture Applied in the Design of Educational Centers and Early Cognitive Development in the District of Villa El Salvador, Lima

Abstract

The objective of this research is to propose the implementation of neurostimulating architecture strategies for the design of early childhood educational centers. These strategies could be relevant for their implementation in rapidly growing urban areas in Peru, where many children lack access to early education. There has been an increase of 4.40% in the dropout rate at this educational level in recent years, and it has been observed that classrooms and educational facilities are not adequately prepared to accommodate the activities of this educational level. Likewise, the difficulty in accessing simple architectural design strategies that enhance cognitive development in children is concerning, especially when infants in early childhood have a natural capacity to acquire new knowledge, which, if not stimulated, could impact their adult lives. The research methodology adopts a mixed approach, analyzing two educational centers in the Villa El Salvador district to evaluate their current conditions in relation to neurostimulating architecture indicators. Interviews with specialists, questionnaires for the study subjects, and an observation guide were also used. This comprehensive approach allows for a better analysis and interpretation of the results. As a result, accessible design archetypes based on nine neurostimulating architecture indicators (illumination, green areas, shape, size, layout, accessibility, scale, colors, materiality) were obtained, and these were applied in an architectural design proposal for an early education center. In conclusion, the application of neurostimulating architecture as a strategy in the design of early childhood education centers has the potential to improve learning and enhance early cognitive development.

1. Introduction

The discipline of architecture has foundations and approaches that have developed over the years, with some of the most well-known being linked to space, form, function, acoustics, and structures [1]. The environment has effects on human beings [2], which can be measurable via stimulation in architecture. This field of neuroscience systematically analyzes, recognizes, and objectively measures how architectural space elements affect or influence the emotions and capacities of individuals within a specific space [3].

Neuroscience, in conjunction with environmental biology and psychology, can collaborate to create enriching architectural environments that promote learning opportunities for a diverse audience. This includes education experts as well as architecture and design professionals [4].

Throughout history, scholars of architecture and design have been aware of how places can influence people’s perceptions. Therefore, across various civilizations and cultures, special attention has been given to how significant places such as sacred spaces, squares, and homes are designed and given distinctive features, playing a fundamental role in the community [5].

Over two thousand years ago, the architect Vitruvius already argued that architecture should integrate knowledge from various sciences. In this context, neurostimulation in architecture establishes a mutual dialogue between neuroscience and the design and construction of architectural spaces, focusing on investigating how the interaction between the mind and the physical environment is related [6]. Today, the concept of an inclusive school is gaining increasing importance. However, to transform the school into a space that is accessible to everyone, substantial efforts must be devoted to the renovation of educational environments, which should be carried out while considering advances in neuroscience and neuroeducation. Within the school institution, the application of universal design principles for all and ensuring accessibility is crucial. This is imperative for creating educational environments that foster the learning process of each individual [7].

While there has been extensive global debate about inclusive education, it is evident that there is still a long journey ahead for schools to truly embody inclusivity. Therefore, it is essential to promote initiatives that raise awareness about this issue with the purpose of establishing stronger connections between architecture and education, aiming to humanize architecture more effectively. In Peru, especially in rural areas with recent urban growth, many children fail to access early education. There is even a dropout rate at this initial educational level, the initial level being children aged 1–5 years (Figure 1), with figures in recent years showing a worrying increase of 4.40% [8] (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

In Peru, there is the PRONOEI Extracurricular Early Childhood Education program; these are non-school educational centers established to offer alternative care options for children who do not have access to formal early education. This program recognizes the important educational role that the communities in rural and marginalized urban areas play. Eighty percent of PRONOEIS are located inside a local park, with the intention of ensuring easy location and accessibility; however, they do not comply with urban planning parameters, as they are built in Public Recreational Zones [9]. Since 2015, Ministerial Resolution No. 036-2015-ED of the Ministry of Education has been in effect, which conditions and evaluates the opening, renewal, and closure of PRONOEIs [10]. Recently, this regulation has had an impact on educational accessibility, with the closure and shutdown of more than 15 PRONOEIs nationwide since 2015, leaving no viable alternative solution for children aged 2–6 who should continue to have access to this right [11]; since the vast majority of children attending these school units come from low-income backgrounds or remote areas of the city, enrolling in a private educational center is not a viable option. Many times, they are left without access to education and experience delays in their learning [12].

Peru faces a significant deficit in its educational infrastructure. According to estimates from the Ministry of Education, the shortage of public educational centers amounts to approximately PEN 56 billion. Given the current conditions of public investment, it is projected that it would take around two decades to close this gap [13]. Despite recent improvements in educational infrastructure, largely attributed to increased investment by regional and local governments, in Peru in 2013, approximately 17% of school buildings in basic education needed complete repairs. This refers to the proportion of public schools where all classrooms in use had leaks or cracks in their walls or ceilings, as reported by the directors of the educational institutions [14]. In March 2022, the Comptroller General of the Republic (CGR Contraloría General de la República) reported that over 50% of the public educational schools visited during its national operation exhibit infrastructure deficiencies, lack basic services, and have limited implementation of COVID-19 safety measures (Figure 3).

Currently, Lima has an annual population growth rate of 1.2%. Additionally, the birth rate analysis for 2019 in the department of Lima recorded a figure of 1044.6 children between 0 and 5 years of age, children who should already be enrolled in an educational center or awaiting early stimulation. In Lima, the districts of Villa María del Triunfo, San Juan de Miraflores, and Villa El Salvador have the highest birth rates. These data are alarming because many of the educational centers in these districts are not adequately prepared; they lack proper infrastructure, suitable furniture, and inviting classrooms for students to stay and attend classes. This does not guarantee that children currently in this stage of childhood can stimulate all their abilities within these educational centers, which should be responsible for fostering cognitive development at this early age [15]. In some districts in the process of consolidation, such as Villa El Salvador, there are educational facilities with deficiencies in infrastructure, which are referred to as ‘informal schools’. These are houses or properties adapted to function as nurseries, daycare centers, and schools, which often lack the necessary licenses [16].

In this context, this research aims to propose the application of neurostimulating architecture in the design of early childhood educational centers via nine indicators that can be easily interpreted, as in the case of the proposed design that will serve as a reference in the Villa El Salvador district.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Intervention Site

In the district of Villa El Salvador, three types of early education centers have been identified, of which 56.5% are private schools, 33.6% are PRONOEIs, and 9.9% are public schools (Figure 4). Of these educational centers in the district, 50% have infrastructure that is in a state of abandonment and qualitative deficit, requiring partial or total replacement in some cases [17]. These data are concerning because safe and suitable facilities for activities at this early age would not be provided.

A spatial analysis of educational facilities in the district of Villa El Salvador has been conducted to assess the current state of the district’s educational centers. This analysis was also carried out to evaluate them based on neurostimulating architecture indicators and to propose easily understandable strategies based on the spatial challenges identified. Two educational centers were selected: the private school Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa, located on Central Avenue in Group 7, Block E, Lot 14, Sector 2; and the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, situated within a park in Group 2, Sector 2 (Figure 5). The selection criteria were based on their proximity to the district and their typology, as previously detailed, with a higher percentage of private schools at 56.5% and PRONOEIs at 33.6%. It is worth noting that access to information and authorization for analysis were not granted by the requested public schools. General characteristics of the evaluated educational centers include their construction status, area, number of classrooms, number of students, and authorization for access to information (

Table 1. General characteristics of the educational centers evaluated.

	Typology	Construction Status	Area in Square Meters	Number of Classrooms	Total Number of Students	Authorization for Access to Information
Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa	Private School (3–5 years)	Good	320	4	80	Requested and accepted
Mi Mundo Infantil	PRONOEI (1–5 years)	Average (Under maintenance)	600	6	100	Requested and accepted

).

2.2. Methodology

The methodology employs a mixed approach, involving interviews with experts, questionnaires for study subjects, and an observation guide. This allows for the analysis and interpretation of both qualitative and quantitative survey results, supported by digital tools such as AutoCAD, Google Earth, and Sun Path.

The current research commences with an analysis of the initial concepts of architectural stimulation via a literature review. It also highlights the educational sector’s challenges in Lima, particularly in the district of Villa El Salvador. This area faces issues related to the closure of PRONOEI schools, resulting in a shortage of suitable educational spaces. Given the substantial population of early childhood children in the district, there is a pressing need for cognitive improvement. To address this, an educational facility was designed for the area, incorporating indicators derived from surveys and interviews (Figure 6).

2.2.1. Background Review

Initially, a review of the relevant literature was conducted regarding the challenging situation in the education sector in Lima. Subsequently, nine indicators were established, drawing upon theoretical foundations.

2.2.2. Expert Interviews

Interviews were conducted with 3 experts in the field via a structured interview following a thorough literature analysis to analyze the 9 indicators and their impact on an educational infrastructure. The experts were architects with approximately 10 years of experience in the field of educational facilities. Additionally, they have a second specialization in educational psychology, which presents the theoretical psychological foundations of the teaching-learning process. This specialization focuses on factors, conditions, modalities, types, and cognitive–affective variables associated with the educational objectives, the profile of the learner, and personal variables, as well as learning strategies (

Table 2. Introduction to the interview industry experts.

Number	Service Unit	Job Attributrd	Profession (1st Title)	2 Specialty (2nd Title)	Years of Works Experience
Expert 1	University teaching	Design of educational spaces. Education Management.	Architect	Psychopedagogy	28
Expert 2	University teaching	Design of educational spaces.	Architect	Psychopedagogy	30
Expert 3	University teaching	Design of educational spaces in Regular Basic Education.	Architect	Psychopedagogy	22

). A structured questionnaire (

Table 3. Summary of the first part of the expert interviews in this study.

C1: According to your observation, what is the environment that children like the most, and what could be the reason that motivates it to be the best space?
Expert A	Most boys and girls find learning-related activities, such as addition, reading, and writing, less appealing. They view play activities, such as field trips or experiences outside the classroom, as a fun way to learn, which excites and motivates them in their learning process.
Expert B	Most boys and girls perceive school classrooms as spaces of appropriate size and comfort to carry out their activities.
Expert C	The specialist believes that color exerts a powerful influence on the emotional state of both children and adults in the classroom. Therefore, it is recommended to make a careful selection of colors and brightness that promote positive attitudes and mood.
C2: What is the environment that children like the least, and what could be the reason that leads it to be the smallest space?
Expert A,B,C.	At present, in the early educational centers of the Villa El Salvador district, an appropriate design criterion has not been established to promote the psychomotor development of children in early childhood. Regarding the cleanliness of the classroom, it is adequate, as it is generally kept clean. However, there is the possibility of improving it, as sometimes the classroom and the educational center in general are dirty and cleaning is not performed with the desired frequency.
C3: What is the environment where children have a permanent stay; also, do you consider this environment favorable for good cognitive development in children? Why?
Expert A	The story area, because puppets are used. Color exerts a significant influence on the emotional state of boys and girls, as well as that of the adults present in the classroom. Therefore, it is essential to choose colors carefully to promote positive attitudes related to brightness and mood.
Expert B	As for the play area, regarding the decoration or the environment, students point out that most of the classrooms are attractively decorated and cater to the students’ preferences. It is important for the decoration to have a clear educational purpose for both students and teaching staff so that it can contribute to the learning process, maintaining a balance between the pedagogical and the aesthetic.
Expert C	It is important to highlight that when children are asked about what they ‘like’ most in the classroom, they primarily mention the decoration, which includes figures, ornaments, a decorated door, curtains, drawings, murals, and plants, among other elements. This underscores the importance of decoration and ambiance as crucial aspects that teachers should consider, as they have a significant impact on student motivation and the creation of a welcoming classroom environment.

and

Table 4. Summary of the second part of the expert interviews in this study.

C4: What percentage do you consider the child engages with and explores the living space?
Expert A	I primarily consider 80%; consequently, by actively exploring their surroundings, the child is mapping out opportunities for their growth and development. The act of exercising, leading an active life, and connecting with nature empowers us to become authentic human beings capable of creating and shaping the world around us.
Expert B and C	Seventy percent of the students feel that the level of cleanliness in the classroom is acceptable for the most part, as it is usually clean. However, there is room for improvement, as the participating population mentions that on occasion, both the classroom and the educational center in general are dirty, and cleaning is not performed as frequently as they would like.
C5: Among the following elements in the space, which do you consider to impact children’s learning and attention? Lighting, green areas, shape, size, distribution, accessibility, scale, colors, materiality.
Expert A	Green areas and materiality.
Expert B	Green areas, materiality, and accessibility.
Expert C	Green areas and materiality.

) was used to gather feedback on the 9 indicators.

The interviews in this research consisted of two parts, each comprising 5 questions. The first part aimed to provide a profile of the environments in educational institutions. The second part focused on the quality of life of students and presented the opinions of experts in the field (Table 3).

2.2.3. Questionnaire

For the formal administration of the questionnaire, 10 questionnaires were conducted to assess whether the indicators were applied properly, the questionnaire’s content was understood, and a blank space for feedback was added at the end of the questionnaire to ensure its validity and reliability.

2.3. Determination of Indicators

To achieve efficient architecture that enables the design of spaces to enhance children’s cognitive development, the implementation of indicators is necessary (Figure 7).

2.4. Determination and Formulation of Questionnaire

2.4.1. Distribution of the Questionnaire

The first early childhood education center visited was Rosa de Santa María de Villa private school on 18 October 2022, and the second one was the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, visited on 20 October 2022. Both educational centers were accessed with authorization requested and accepted by the respective authorities. During the field visit, two types of measurement instruments were used: 1. A spatial evaluation sheet and 2. A survey for teachers, as well as photographic captures. These were evaluated based on the Likert scale (

Table 5. Likert Scale.

	Deficient	Insufficient	Middle	Enough	Outstanding
VALUE	0%	1–25%	26–50%	51–70%	71–100%

). For the photographic capture, three criteria were used, which are: 1. Show the environment with a panorama that allows us to see the entire space. 2. Capture natural and everyday situations and interactions of the occupants with the space. 3. Take the shots at the child’s scale, approximately 95 cm to the line of sight.

The questionnaire is based on the 9 proposed indicators and is related to a spatial and educational equipment analysis using the Likert scale to assess different levels of opinion, with the following scale: poor (1), insufficient (2), average (3), sufficient (4), and outstanding (5), corresponding to the qualitative analysis values of the study’s indicators.

2.4.2. Questionnaire Design

The study employed a random sampling method to distribute the questionnaire both online and in person. The survey platform included professionals from educational centers (educators, administrators, parents, and professionals belonging to the study area). A total of 120 responses to the survey were obtained, and after selecting non-eligible responses, 20 valid questionnaires were analyzed, with a high rate of valid sample recovery. The respondents were professionals in the field of architecture with expertise in educational equipment and design (

Table 6. Questionnaire Design.

Questionnaire Design Based on the 9 Indicators
1.	What is the percentage of the implementation of natural light over artificial light in the design of the educational center space based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
2.	What is the percentage of implementation of green areas in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
3.	What is the percentage in the implementation of curved, orthogonal, and angular elements for the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
4.	What is the percentage of implementation of spacious and small environments in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
5.	What is the percentage of linear and dynamic distribution in the spaces of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
6.	What is the percentage of accessibility to the environments in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
7.	What is the percentage of architectural elements that are at an intimate, normal, and monumental scale in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
8.	What is the percentage of application of bright, neutral, and dark colors in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%
9.	What is the percentage of application of smooth and rough materials on surfaces in the design of the educational center based on stimulating architectural principles that enable early cognitive development in the Villa El Salvador district?	Deficient 0% Insufficient 1–25% Middle 26–50% Enough 51–70% Outstanding 71–100%

). In particular, 60% of the respondents had more than five years of experience in the field, indicating the reliability and validity of the results.

The questions for the questionnaire outcome were developed based on the nine indicators established in the initial stage, which serve as criteria for creating a neurostimulating architecture for young children.

2.5. Results Analysis

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

The evaluation conducted at the two selected educational centers, Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school and PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, provides us with information about the state and application of neurostimulating architecture in the facilities such as classrooms, playgrounds, and gardens. These indicators are not consciously applied based on established parameters; in most cases, the indicators are insufficient/medium (Figure 8) (

Table 7. Table of results of the spatial analysis based on neurostimulating architecture indicators in the Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school.

	Indicators		Percentage	Value Likert Scale
Neurostimulating Architecture	1. Lighting	Natural	20%	INSUFFICIENT
		Artificial	80%	OUTSTANDING
	2. Green areas		0%	DEFICIENT
	3. Shape	Curved	10%	INSUFFICIENT
		Orthogonal	90%	OUTSTANDING
		Angular	0%	DEFICIENT
	4. Size	Spaacious	30%	MIDDLE
		Small	70%	ENOUGH
	5. Distribution	Linear	80%	OUTSTANDING
		Dynamic	20%	INSUFFICIENT
	6. Accessibility		50%	MIDDLE
	7. Scale	Intimate	10%	INSUFFICIENT
		Normal	80%	OUTSTANDING
		Monumental	10%	INSUFFICIENT
	8. Colors	Intense	80%	OUTSTANDING
		Neutral	10%	INSUFFICIENT
		Dark	10%	INSUFFICIENT
	9. Materiality	Smooth	60%	ENOUGH
		Rough	40%	MIDDLE

and

Table 8. Table of results of the spatial analysis based on neurostimulating architecture indicators in the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil.

	Dimensions		Percentage	Value Likert Scale
Neurostimulating architecture	1. Lighting	Natural	50%	MIDDLE
		Artificial	50%	MIDDLE
	2. Green areas		20%	INSUFFICIENT
	3. Shape	Curved	0%	DEFICIENT
		Orthogonal	100%	OUTSTANDING
		Angular	0%	DEFICIENT
	4. Size	Spacious	70%	ENOUGH
		Small	30%	MIDDLE
	5. Distribution	Linear	60%	ENOUGH
		Dynamic	40%	MIDDLE
	6. Accessibility		70%	ENOUGH
	7. Scale	Intimate	50%	MIDDLE
		Normal	40%	MIDDLE
		Monumental	10%	INSUFFICIENT
	8. Colors	Intense	20%	INSUFFICIENT
		Neutral	80%	OUTSTANDING
		Dark	0%	DEFICIENT
	9. Materiality	Smooth	50%	MIDDLE
		Rough	50%	MIDDLE

).

3. Results

3.1. Location of the Proposed Application

The location where the proposal will be placed and where the indicators will be applied in the educational center will be in the South American country of Peru, in the department and province of Lima, in the district of Villa El Salvador [18] (Figure 9a–c), which, as already reviewed in the introduction, is the department and province with the highest birth rate and educational infrastructure issues. the district of Villa El Salvador is located to the south of Metropolitan Lima. It borders to the north with San Juan de Miraflores district, to the east with the Villa María del Triunfo district, to the south with the Lurin district, to the west with the Chorrillos district, and the Pacific Ocean [19].

A proposed intervention area of 2115 m² (Figure 9d) is projected for an educational center covering the early childhood levels of 1–5 years, taking the premise of this proposed built element as an articulator. Therefore, the link it has with other educational centers, accessibility, proximity to public amenities such as sports courts, and the availability of an unused lot have been considered. It is worth noting that currently, there is a poorly conditioned PRONOEI on the lot (Figure 10), and the lot complies with urban planning parameters designated as ‘Other Uses’.

3.2. Interpretation and Application of Indicators in the Architectural Design

3.2.1. Lighting

Natural lighting has better effects on learning capacity, generating positive outcomes such as increased concentration and mood improvement. On the other hand, artificial lighting could have a negative impact on students, as it may trigger stress and anxiety hormones, impairing concentration and cooperation in children during the performance of activities. In other words, it has a negative effect, leading to the production of stress hormones and affecting physical development [20].

In the case of Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school, artificial lighting predominates, competing with natural light input, and this effect is repeated in 80% of classrooms. There are windows; however, they are covered with paper to prevent direct sunlight from entering. Regarding the behavior of the children, they prefer to sit in the row where the heat of the sun does not directly hit their backs (Figure 11a). On the other hand, in PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, you can see high windows from which natural light is obtained. However, the lower areas of the classroom are left without illumination, and when it comes to writing or copying from the board, there is a need to turn on the fluorescent lights (Figure 11b).The proposal involves the use of floor-to-ceiling frosted glass partitions oriented north–south based on the climatic study of the location. This prioritizes the entry of natural light, with one side facing the external trees, which would provide shade and greater security for children. Furthermore, the implementation of skylights and tall windows is proposed, which would allow for the passage of natural light and cross-ventilation, situated in the main study areas, such as classrooms (Figure 11c).The implementation of the proposal in classrooms in Peru is an achievable goal, but it requires careful planning, consideration of multiple factors, and collaboration among architects, designers, educators, and school authorities.

3.2.2. Green Areas

Green spaces are powerful restorers of the mind and memory. They also contribute to stress and depression reduction, improving productivity in children due to the cerebral oxygenation they provide. Direct contact with green areas in the early years has a significant impact on quality of life [21].

The green areas found in each of the educational centers are either nonexistent or scarce. In the case of the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil (Figure 12a,b) it has a garden and a school garden, both spatially disconnected from the children. Regarding the interaction with this natural element, there is none, because without feeling an attachment or direct connection to its care, they do not give it the importance it deserves. This translates into rejection or lack of interest; in addition to this, each of these areas is enclosed, which prevents the visualization and the awakening of children’s interest, as well as interpreting it as a barrier that isolates them.

The proposal suggests a direct supervised connection between green areas and children, allowing for reflection, with the support and guidance of teachers, to gradually awaken their natural interest. This would involve placing green areas within the influence radius of the central courtyard and complementing it with a school garden that children can easily access, where the planters would be positioned at 50 cm above ground level. Each child could sponsor a plant; in this way, a much more reflective environment could be created as awareness of these natural elements grows (Figure 12c).

These dynamics and the implementation of school gardens align with the proposal for Urban Gardens in Lima, Peru, which promotes the care, planting, and conservation of natural elements [22]. In this way, not only would the community be part of the initiative, but the school would also be reinforcing this practice.

3.2.3. Shape

Spaces with curved contours or joints are interpreted to generate a sense of comfort and dynamism. Orthogonal spaces with 90° angles create a certain degree of comfort and permanence. The angle at which they are presented also plays a role; spaces with angular joints may induce stress and anxiety in children [23].

In both educational centers, the environments are characterized by predominating orthogonal contours or junctions, which are observed by the children as a change in orientation or a sharp change in direction, resulting in increased resistance when entering the space (Figure 13a). Therefore, it is suggested to implement curved corners around the perimeter of the proposal, with four connection points and junctions that would be inside the classrooms. This feature would help stimulate children’s attention, could provide some dynamism in the space, promote playful activities, and improve the comfort of children in the classrooms (Figure 13b).

The construction of curved walls can be a challenge, but it is definitely possible anywhere in the world, including Peru. Therefore, it would be proposed only at the joints of walls with a manageable radius. The intention is to avoid straight or angular joints that generate the aforementioned negative stimuli. For their construction, curved prefabricated panels could be implemented for use in formwork, or the possibility of using prefabricated materials such as drywall could be considered. This would depend on the planning and budget considerations

3.2.4. Size and Distribution

Spacious environments promote the movement and interactions of young children. The arrangement of themed spaces with different sizes will aid in the interpretation and identification of activities. Additionally, a large outdoor space encourages exploratory activities in the open air [24].

Linear distribution restricts exploration by directing movement, whereas a space with dynamic distribution encourages movement. The effectiveness of these approaches depends significantly on the intended function of a space. It is crucial for children to feel a sense of belonging to their surroundings, fostering a freedom to think without limits, and allowing their brains to capture the best stimuli [25].

What was observed regarding the size and distribution of spaces at Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school was during the snack time when the children had the freedom to move between the classroom/bathroom/patio. It was noted that while the patio is spacious, not many children go out to play. On the contrary, they prefer to stay in the classroom playing with some objects, such as Legos or dolls, or gather in groups (Figure 14a). This is because the spaces are rigorously disconnected, and the children prefer an environment where they have more to play with and that catches their attention. In contrast, this was observed differently in the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, where the play and learning space seems to be one and the same (Figure 14b).

This proposes a planning of physical spaces and amenities based on children and their age-specific needs. It suggests classrooms designed to be spacious and multifunctional, allowing for modifications by teachers. These spaces would promote movement and interactions among children, serving as dynamic environments. Architectural decisions such as double heights, windows, transparency, and changes in materials would act as spatial connecting elements and help children easily identify their functions within the same space (Figure 14c,d).

For optimal execution, it would be important to consider the arrangement of furniture, equipment, the number of students, and especially the dynamics implemented in each activity. This way, the fulfillment of established educational needs for each level of study would be guaranteed, contributing to their optimal performance and development.

3.2.5. Accessibility and Scale

Accessibility to an environment is crucial for the spatial relationship perceived by children, given their constant search and curiosity for the unknown. In an accessible environment, children can explore objects in their surroundings, engage in complex sensorimotor and cognitive processes, such as anticipation asking questions such as: ‘What is going to happen’? or ‘Where is it going’? The planning of their motor actions allows them to be effective, contributing to practical intelligence in young children. Additionally, accessible environments are perceived as comfortable and safe [26].

Children need to feel a certain sense of belonging to their environments so that they can feel free, unrestricted in their thinking, and so their brains can better capture stimuli. Therefore, spatial scale is crucial for their spatial interpretation. There are three scales that are determined in relation to the individual and the inhabitable space. These scales are intimate scale, normal scale, and monumental scale. Below is a description and applicable formula for the determination of each of these scales, where there is a variable (X) representing the average height of the individual inhabiting a specific space. In this case, (X) would take a value of 97 cm as it is the average height of children in early childhood.

Intimate Scale: The individual has a very close, intimate relationship with the space or structure they are in. It evokes feelings of control, intimacy, concentration, and individuality. Its quantification is determined by the following range equation: from 1.25(X) to 1.50(X). Possible environments for its application include reading areas, sensory stimulation areas, restroom zones, elevators, and resting areas.

Normal Scale: This occurs when the structure has a certain standard height where one can be and feel comfortable; it is a spacious area. It gives sensations of stability and attention. Its quantification is determined by the following range equation: from 1.50(X) to 3(X). Possible environments for its application are multiple.

Monumental Scale: It is the relationship of a person to a structure of greater height, providing sensations of spaciousness and directionality. Its quantification is determined by the following range equation: from 3(X)to 10(X). Possible environments for its application include learning workshops, halls, common areas, living rooms, socialization spaces, corridors, etc. [27].

The scales and degree of accessibility of the environments in the evaluated educational centers attempt to meet the required standards. However, children with certain limitations have been observed due to the typology and lack of furniture at their scale that adapts to their needs and routines within the classroom. In addition to this, it was observed that children try to adapt despite the limitations and even modify the available furniture (Figure 15a–c) to make them more functional or change their use (Figure 15d).

Therefore, we propose introducing furniture and elements to scale for early childhood in each of the environments where they interact (Figure 15e), which is multifunctional and evolutionary based on the principles of Montessori philosophy. These furniture pieces are specifically adapted to promote independence, concentration and the development of practical skills in children. They include shelves at eye level and tables and chairs of suitable sizes for young children with removable and adjustable legs [28]. These furniture pieces would facilitate autonomous access and interaction with the environment, would providing children with confidence in themselves and their decisions. A set of measurements for common furniture based on fieldwork is also proposed, which takes as a reference the height of boys and girls in early childhood (Figure 15 and

Table 9. Anthropometric parameters for school furniture.

Age	Average Height (Boys/Girls)	Table Height (Floor to Tabletop)	Chair Height (Floor to Seat)
1–2 years	80–95 cm	40 cm	20 cm
2–3 years	93–116 cm	45 cm	25 cm
3–5 years	108–121 cm	55 cm	30 cm

).

The manufacturing of Montessori furniture is feasible in Peru because there are easily accessible manufacturing guides. However, it would be necessary to have guidance and collaboration between planners, whether architects or designers, and teachers who are familiar with the daily dynamics of students for the distribution of furniture in educational spaces.

3.2.6. Colors

Colors are elements that greatly influence the mood of the inhabitants of a given space. Intense tones such as green, yellow, and blue colors are associated with vibrant nature, reduce stress, and are believed to enhance creativity and ease when performing activities.Neutral tones, such as mustard, cream, or gray, or desaturated hues evoke a sense of calmness and can potentially induce a feeling of melancholy if not contrasted appropriately.Dark colors, such as black or brown, representing mystery and seriousness, are not very friendly for environments where developmental activities take place [29] (

Table 10. Typology of colors.

Typology of Color	Characteristics	Result
Intense	Color saturation refers to the amount of perceived light.
Neutral	All neutral colors have white undertones that may include shades of yellow, black, or green.
Dark	Hues that contain black in their composition have the least amount of light.

).

The classrooms and playground at PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, neutral colors predominate at 80% (Figure 16a), while at Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school have intense colors to a large extent at 80% (Figure 16b). Additionally, it has been observed that in classrooms with neutral colors, children engage much more with objects around them, such as toys, ramps, books, or mats. On the other hand, children in colorful environments tend to be more extroverted and form stronger bonds with each other.

This suggests the use of differentiated colors between intense and neutral ones. The application of intense colors for environments where greater involvement is needed for playful activities, such as the playground and multipurpose rooms. The use of neutral colors such as white on the walls for environments that require attention and concentration, such as the classrooms (Figure 16c,d).

The choice of colors will depend on the sensory effects one aims to evoke, taking into account the specific uses for different environments. The likelihood of using intense and neutral colors in a classroom for children in Peru is high and justified. Additionally, it could bring benefits to the learning environment as long as careful planning is undertaken, considering the needs of the students and educational objectives.

3.2.7. Materiality

The chosen materiality in the environment shapes the sense of touch, provides information about the surroundings and insights into one’s own body, and allows for the creation of a body schema. Interpreting a texture enhances neural connections. A smooth and regular surface produces a static, motionless visual sensation, whereas a rough, irregular texture with different colors creates a greater visual sense of movement. Similarly, color can either highlight or soften a texture depending on the intended effect. Regular textures convey a static visual sensation, while irregular textures create a more pronounced visual sense of movement [30].

In the assessment carried out, this indicator was divided into two categories, smooth and textured. From the observation, it was possible to identify that at the Rosa de Santa Maria de Villa private school, smooth ceramic walls cover the classrooms up to 1.10 m from the floor. In a certain way, this encourages children to paint on them and makes cleaning easier compared to painting on plastered walls. Additionally, elements such as glass windows were observed and identified, which, due to their transparency, arouse a certain level of curiosity in the child (Figure 17a). On the other hand, at the PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil, the presence of soft, flexible mats and carpets was identified, which invite safe play and flexibility (Figure 17b).

This proposes the intentional implementation of elements with different typologies of textures, which would contribute to the development of fine motor skills in children as they come into contact with textures interpreted as soft (harmless, easy to use), smooth (cold, for marking or painting), transparent (for discovery), and rigid (for delineation, generating alerts). This variety of textures would primarily be introduced in the playroom, which would have a more exploratory character (Figure 17c).

For optimal implementation, it is fundamental to consider accessibility and individual needs according to each age group. The key is to ensure that the choice of textures aligns with educational objectives and the cultural environment, and that it is carried out inclusively and accessibly for all students.

The area where the design of the educational center is proposed has a strategic location that would allow for the restoration of vegetation at the ends and the creation of access points to the interior, directly connecting the proposal with other green areas in the immediate surroundings. There is a plan to establish a participatory connection with the neighbors of the area and the parents of the students. The proposal would include the integration of a restored sports court towards the left end, and in the future, the incorporation of a community hall and a popular dining facility, two necessary establishments in the area that align functionally and foster a sense of community sought in the proposal. The volumetric proposal is non-invasive, consisting of two open floors with an interior connecting courtyard (Figure 18a,b).

The proposal incorporates strategies that would allow for cross-ventilation and natural daylight throughout the day (Figure 19a,b). This is due to the strategic orientation to the southeast and northwest, which would enable the entry of indirect light. Additionally, the creation of an acoustic buffer via the implementation of vegetation in the southeast of the site has been proposed, as well as a school garden to take advantage of the orientation, facilitate waterproofing, and provide thermal insulation.

The architectural proposal features two levels, which provide multiple spaces for developing cultural skills; likewise, the distribution of spaces is identified. Strategic points are observed, which serve as visual focal points for generating 3D views. These points are highlighted in red, yellow, light green, dark green, blue, and sky blue (Figure 20).

4. Discussion

People react cognitively and emotionally to their constructed environment [31]. Within this framework, spaces and buildings designed to provide suitable habitation must not only meet sustainability, functionality, and aesthetic criteria but also adhere to standards that ensure comfort, safety, accessibility, and above all, health [32]. In this context, architecture and neuroscience intertwine to form a meaningful connection. This innovative interdisciplinary relationship seeks not only to understand how spaces influence people but also to apply this knowledge in architectural design, giving rise to the emerging field of neuroarchitecture [33]. The quality of educational environments is essential for academic development, as school facilities must be designed considering not only functional and aesthetic aspects but also their direct impact on the learning experience. A healthy educational environment not only contributes to the emotional and mental well-being of students but can also enhance their academic performance [34]. This comprehensive approach, spanning education and architecture, underscores the connection between different disciplines to promote integral development.

In the specific case of Peru, the strategic framework for the direction of education is the ‘National Educational Project to 2036: the challenge of full citizenship’ (PEN), which has four fundamental objectives: civic life; inclusion and equity; socioemotional well-being; and productivity, prosperity, research, and sustainability. The aim of the PEN is to guarantee equal opportunities for all Peruvian students to foster their learning processes [35]. In this way, the quality of infrastructure contributes to reducing inequalities by decreasing the performance gap between schools with low performance and those with high performance, thereby serving both a motivational and functional role [36]. However, despite the emphasis on the importance of having high-quality educational infrastructure in the PEN, and the progressive increase in investment in basic educational infrastructure, significant disparities still exist between schools in urban and rural settings [37]. This fact represents an ongoing challenge that the education system must address and overcome. In this regard, this research provides 9 neurostimulating architecture indicators that, if applied to improve educational infrastructure, will promote the development of cognitive skills in early childhood, contributing to the creation of more equitable educational environments in Peru.

Recent research has contributed knowledge about the relationship and impact of neurostimulating architecture on individuals. For example, the application of neuroscience in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) for premature infants in Florida, USA, in the early 1990s is noteworthy. Neonatal intensive care units were originally designed to meet the functional needs of doctors and nurses but overlooked crucial aspects such as light intensity, temperature, and the filtration of external sounds. The result of that study determined that the final stage of a baby’s development is highly important and is determined via the reception of stimuli. Accordingly, changes were proposed regarding the senses, such as the management of light, sound, and smells. The changes made had a positive effect on the development of the babies [38].

The review of various studies has demonstrated that the application of some or all of the proposed indicators has brought about a change in users. When implementing indicators and principles of neurostimulating architecture in experimental research, changes in child behavior were observed. For example, in a digital fabrication classroom environment [39], a comprehensive experience was promoted that incorporated various elements such as light, sound, level of interaction, scale, and socializing agents; the new environment generated provided new stimuli and addressed a variety of somatosensory needs. In parallel, it has been evidenced that the combined application of new design parameters in educational infrastructure significantly improves students’ academic progress [40]. Thus, indicators such as light, temperature, air quality, ownership, flexibility, complexity, and color are important elements to consider in an ‘inside-out design’.

At a specific level, it has been demonstrated that even the color tone of classroom walls influences students’ performance. The results showed that cool-toned colors enhance performance in attention and memory tasks [41]. Additionally, correlations were observed between psychological and neurophysiological metrics, representing a significant advancement in the field of neuroarchitecture. Furthermore, cases applied via MRI studies have analyzed the effects of ceiling height and internal spatial perception. These studies demonstrated that spaces with higher ceilings were more likely to be perceived as beautiful and activated structures related to visuospatial exploration. In contrast, enclosed spaces tended to induce decisions to leave the environment [42].

On the other hand, the implementation of improvements in the quality of interior lighting in educational settings, such as university classrooms, has been shown to have a direct impact on increasing student productivity [43]. Even the proper choice of this lighting contributes to improving the energy efficiency of the building itself. In that regard, research on the impact of illumination on the memory of university students using psychological and physiological metrics demonstrates that reducing it significantly enhances memory performance and activates the sympathetic nervous system [44].

As for the limitations of the research, it is necessary to address the lack of consensus in the methods for analyzing and measuring the impact of the built environment on cognitive processes [45]. In this regard, the initiation of neurophysiological analyses, even if architects do not have expertise in this area, becomes vital. The creation of standardized protocols is essential for assessing cognitive effects in indoor environments, providing a clear understanding of how and to what extent each architectural design variable influences cognitive development. Understanding this impact from a neurophysiological perspective would enable architects to play a crucial role in supporting education, productivity, and other human activities shaped by the built environment.

5. Conclusions

Education plays a crucial role in the economic development of a society, as it is considered an investment in the growth of human capital. This is reflected in the improvement of skills and abilities, generating higher levels of productivity and greater income, thus contributing to overall well-being over time. School facilities play a crucial role in academic performance, underscoring their significance in overall achievement.

This research provides an innovative guide of neurostimulating architecture indicators for architects and designers involved in the planning of healthy cities and buildings. The study identifies 9 indicators for comprehensive planning of space/child interactions based on the five senses. While working with naturally built environments yields consistent results, the creation and evaluation of new atmospheres related to children could generate new hypotheses or patterns of behavior.

This design proposal, serving as a case study, explores how neurostimulating architectural strategies can be effectively implemented in the unique context of Peru. When the lighting conditions at Rosa de Santa María de Villa private school and PRONOEI Mi Mundo Infantil are examined, it becomes evident that significant challenges exist. The prevalent use of artificial lighting and limited natural light penetration significantly impact the educational environment. In response, the proposal offers a solution by recommending the use of frosted glass partitions aligned with climatic considerations to optimize the ingress of natural light into classrooms, with a primary focus on enhancing the well-being of children. This approach also seeks to improve cross-ventilation, creating a safer and more comfortable learning space while addressing the shortcomings of the current conditions.

Simultaneously, the existing green spaces within these educational centers are either scarce or absent. In the case of PRONOEI, even though it has a garden and a school garden, they are spatially disconnected from the children, resulting in limited interaction and a perceived lack of significance. The proposal, as part of the case study, aims to establish a direct and supervised connection between green areas and children, encouraging children to reflect on their care with the support of teachers. This involves the integration of green spaces into the playground and the introduction of a school garden on the second level, accessible to 4–5-year-old children. Elevated planters, positioned at 50 cm above ground level, are suggested to allow each child to become a sponsor of a plant. This creates a more immersive and contemplative environment, promoting awareness and understanding of these natural elements.

A thorough examination of the current configuration of the two selected educational centers in the district discovered that these make predominant use of orthogonal contours, which children often perceive as obstacles during entry. The proposed introduction of curved corners along the periphery, featuring internal connections and junctions within classrooms, is aimed at enhancing the overall experience for children. This design strives to captivate their attention, encourage playful activities, improve comfort, and optimize the ergonomic aspects of the learning environment. These envisioned alterations underscore a dedication to establishing a more child-friendly and engaging spatial layout within educational settings.

In terms of size and distribution, an analysis of spatial dynamics during snack time at the private school brought to light an interesting preference among children. They displayed a tendency to remain in the classroom rather than utilizing the spacious patio, emphasizing the importance of tailoring physical spaces to cater to the age-specific needs of young learners. The proposed design places a strong emphasis on the creation of spacious and multifunctional classrooms, offering flexibility for modifications by teachers. The primary objective is to foster dynamic environments that facilitate movement and interactions among children. Architectural decisions, such as the incorporation of double-height spaces, strategically placed windows, transparency, and a variety of materials, play a pivotal role in unifying areas and assisting children in easily discerning different functions within the same space. These findings underscore the crucial significance of thoughtful spatial planning in enhancing the overall learning and play experience for young students, making this design proposal an essential case study in the realm of neurostimulating architecture, particularly in the unique context of Peru.

While the scales and accessibility levels of the evaluated educational centers strive to align with required standards, it is important to acknowledge the limitations that exist, particularly for children with specific needs due to the existing typology and the absence of furniture adapted to their scale. Notably, children have exhibited remarkable adaptability, making their own attempts to modify their surroundings for improved functionality. In light of these challenges, the proposal recommends the introduction of multifunctional and evolving furniture, drawing inspiration from the Montessori philosophy’s principles. This innovative furniture is specifically designed to promote children’s independence, enhance their concentration, and support the development of practical skills, thereby fostering autonomous access and interaction with the environment. The incorporation of precise measurements for common furniture, informed by extensive fieldwork, further bolsters the viability of this proposal as a case study for the successful implementation of neurostimulating architectural strategies.

Within the context of this case study, the classrooms and playgrounds in the evaluated schools showcase distinctive color schemes. One school opts for vibrant, intense colors (the private school), while the other predominantly employs neutral colors (PRONOEI). It is noteworthy that children in neutral-colored environments tend to engage more with objects, fostering focused activities, whereas colorful environments seem to encourage extroverted behavior and the formation of stronger social bonds among children. In light of these observations, the proposed recommendation is to implement a differentiated color strategy. Bright and lively colors would be employed in areas where increased involvement in playful activities is desired, such as playgrounds and multipurpose rooms. On the contrary, more subdued and neutral colors, such as white, are suggested for spaces that necessitate attention and concentration, such as classrooms.

Additionally, the evaluation of the texture indicator reveals distinctions between the educational centers. The private school incorporates smooth ceramic walls and glass windows, which stimulate child interaction and curiosity. In contrast, the PRONOEI utilizes soft, flexible mats and carpets to prioritize safe play and flexibility. To cater to the diverse sensory and developmental needs of the children, the proposed recommendation involves intentionally integrating elements with a range of texture typologies. This includes incorporating soft, smooth, transparent, and rigid textures to enhance the overall sensory experience and support the development of the children within this unique Peruvian context.

The application of stimulating architecture in the design of early childhood education centers has the potential to enhance learning by promoting attention, concentration, reflexes, autonomy, sensitivity, and reflection. While it is not feasible to standardize educational or architectural proposals due to various parameters and requirements, it is advisable to design based on archetypes defined by observations of real interactions between the environment and the child, demonstrating an impact on early cognitive development. In regions with limited access to education in Peru, the implementation of these accessible and straightforward archetypes can have a significant impact on a child’s development, addressing the lack of early stimulation and better preparing them for future learning. This research aligns with seven Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including quality education, affordable and clean energy, reduced inequalities, and sustainable cities and communities.