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Article

Reusing Ceramic Waste as a Fine Aggregate and Supplemental Cementitious Material in the Manufacture of Sustainable Concrete

by
Walid E. Elemam
1,
Ibrahim Saad Agwa
2,* and
Ahmed M. Tahwia
1
1
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
2
Civil and Architectural Constructions Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Suze University, Suez 41522, Egypt
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2023, 13(11), 2726; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112726
Submission received: 4 October 2023 / Revised: 19 October 2023 / Accepted: 27 October 2023 / Published: 29 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Materials for Construction)
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Abstract

:
A viable strategy for promoting sustainable development and a cleaner environment is the reuse of demolition-related ceramic waste and ceramic manufacturing byproducts in the production of concrete. The purpose of this study is to assess the possibilities for using ceramic waste in the production of concrete as a fine aggregate and cementitious material. The effectiveness of concrete mixtures incorporating 20–100% ceramic waste fine (CWF) as a replacement for natural fine aggregate and 10–30% ceramic waste powder (CWP) in place of cement was evaluated. Their influence was assessed with respect to workability, mechanical performance, durability, and elevated temperature resistance. The results were analyzed via energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings illustrated that the increase in the replacement levels of CWP and CWF decreases the concrete workability. The mechanical performance of concrete mixtures is enhanced under compression and flexural tests as the replacement ratios of CWF and CWP increase up to 50% and 10% as replacements of sand and cement, respectively. The increases in compressive and flexural strength were 5.33% and 8.14%, respectively, at age 28 days. The concrete water permeability significantly increases as the CWF replacement ratio increases, and the incorporation of CWP reduces this negative impact. After exposure to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C, the residual compressive strengths of concrete mixtures incorporating CWF and CWP were up to 95.02%, 89.66%, 74.33%, and 51.34%, respectively, compared to control mixtures, which achieved 84.25%, 76.03%, 59.36%, and 35.84% of their initial strength. Microstructure analysis revealed that combining CWP and CWF significantly improves cement hydration when compared to the reference mixture. Thus, the use of CWF and CWP in the production of masonry mortar might be an economical alternative that would aid in raising the recycling rate of demolition and construction debris and supporting sustainable growth in the building sector.

1. Introduction

The system of the earth is deteriorated by the huge use of natural resources in industry. The greatest industry in the world is building, and, each year, 12 billion tons of concrete are produced [1,2]. Furthermore, one ton of cement produced emits one ton of CO2 into the environment [3,4]. Nowadays, sustainable development is the most significant challenge in every area of human activity [5,6]. The recycling of waste materials has grown in popularity due to its multiple benefits, such as lowering environmental pollution and needing less storage space. One of the most widely used artificial materials worldwide is concrete, making it highly desirable to use recycled solid waste resources and promote sustainability [6,7,8,9,10]. Industrial solid waste, such as silica fume, slag, and fly ash, and construction solid waste, such as ceramic tiles, old concrete, waste glass, and clay bricks, are two types of solid waste [11]. A lot of ceramic waste is produced during building demolition and the production of ceramic products, which not only poses major environmental risks but also necessitates the use of a large landfill [12,13].
The impact of utilizing ceramic waste on mortar and concrete performance is the focus of numerous studies. Kannan et al. [7] revealed that the initial slump value of concrete incorporating 20–30% CWP as a replacement for cement is higher than a control mix, while Li et al. [11] reported that the rise in CWP replacement level led to an increase in the superplasticizer dosages required to provide the desired workability. According to Medina et al. [14], the density of fresh concrete mixes reduced linearly with the increase in the recycled ceramic aggregate proportion used to replace natural aggregates. Steiner et al. [15] revealed that replacing up to 25% of the cement with ceramic tile polishing residue has negligible influence on mortar strength. Meanwhile, a reduction in concrete compressive strength with the incorporation of CWP as a partial replacement for cement was observed in numerous previous studies [16,17,18,19].
According to Jackiewicz-Rek et al. [5], using up to 20% of sanitary ceramic fillers as a partial substitute for fine aggregates enhances the mechanical properties of concrete and eliminates shrinkage. López et al. [14] reported that replacing up to 50% of the sand with fine ceramic aggregate resulted in minor enhancements in compressive strength. Tahwia [20] investigated the impact of replacing 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of aggregate with ceramic waste. The findings indicated that the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of recycled ceramic concrete improved as the replacement percentage of natural aggregates increased. Gonzalez-Corominas and Etxeberria [21] found that when 30% of natural fine aggregate was substituted with CWF, similar or improved durability and mechanical characteristics were obtained. According to Zareei et al. [22], substituting natural coarse aggregate with 20%, 40%, and 60% waste ceramic aggregate, respectively, led to 6%, 16%, and 4% enhancements in compressive strength, obtained at age 28 days. Medina et al. [23] revealed an improvement in compressive strength of 12% for concrete containing 20% ceramic coarse aggregate as a substitution for natural coarse aggregate. However, Nepomuceno et al. [24] found that when recycled coarse ceramic aggregate replaced natural coarse aggregate, the compressive strength of concrete mixtures decreased.
Indicators of durability are used by the scientific community today to forecast and evaluate the performance of concrete across its service life. These indicators assess whether concrete will last for the entirety of its designated useful life based on features that may be quantified [25,26]. Cheng et al. [18] noticed that the permeability resistance of the concrete mixed with 10–40% waste ceramic polishing powder as a replacement for cement is superior to that of the control mix. Medina et al. [23] reported that concrete containing up to 25% ceramic waste aggregate has comparable durability to regular concrete. When ceramic fine aggregate was used to replace natural fine aggregate by 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100%, Siddhique et al. [27] found that the angularity of the ceramic fine aggregate increased porosity and water absorption. Building codes provide the required fire safety standards that concrete structural members utilized in the buildings must meet [28]. This is due to the fact that one of the most harmful environmental factors that constructions might encounter is fire [29,30]. Rashad and Essa [31] revealed that CWP has a beneficial impact on both compressive strength and water absorption before and after exposure to high temperatures. The impact of CWP on concrete exposed to 200–800 °C was studied by Mehdi Mohit and Yasser Sharif [32]. The findings showed that specimens containing CWP exhibit greater mechanical performance than control specimens at high temperatures.
Following a review of prior research, a discrepancy was discovered about the influence of employing ceramic waste as fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, or powder on the mechanical performance and workability of concrete. Furthermore, the majority of these studies have only used powder, coarse fractions, or fine fractions, and the effect of combining more than one form of ceramic waste has not been investigated. It was also found that relatively few studies focused on the influence of ceramic waste on the durability and its resistance to elevated temperatures. In this study, the mechanical performance and workability of concrete mixtures incorporating 20–100% CWF as a replacement for natural fine aggregate and 10–30% CWP in place of cement were evaluated. Concrete durability was assessed using a water permeability test. Also, an effort has been made to investigate the behavior of concrete mixtures incorporating CWF and CWP at extreme temperatures (200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C).

2. Experimental Program

2.1. Materials

For the purposes of this research, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) CEM I 42.5 N, which complies with the standards of ES: 4756-1/2013 [33] and BS EN 197-1/2011 [34], was used. The ceramic materials used in this study were waste ceramic floor tiles sourced from a demolition site in Mansoura, Egypt. Ceramic demolition trash was ground up in a crusher machine to provide an appropriate grading distribution. Following the crushing stage, the crushed ceramic was passed through sieves of 4.75 mm and 125 μm. The material that passed through the 4.75 mm sieve and remained in the 125 μm sieve was collected and represented CWF, while the materials passed through the 125 μm sieve represented CWP. Figure 1 illustrates the processing steps to produce CWP and CWF. The OPC and CWP chemical composition are listed in Table 1. According to BS EN 12620 [35], crushed dolomite (4.75/12.5) and natural sand (0/4.75) with a 2.97 fineness modulus were utilized. The specific gravities of coarse and fine aggregate were 2.63% and 2.58%, respectively, and their water absorptions were 1.3 and 0.8, respectively. Additionally, a superplasticizer (SP) type F with 1.1 specific weight and that complies with ASTM C494 [36] was employed in this study as a constant proportion (1.5%) of the weight of the powder (OPC + CWP).

2.2. Composition of Concrete Mixes

The control mixture was designed to produce concrete with an average 28-day compressive strength of about 40 ± 2 MPa with high workability. The CWP replacement ratios for cement were set at 10%, 20%, and 30%, whereas the CWF replacement ratios for sand were set at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. All of the concrete mixtures were designed with a water/powder (W/P) ratio of 0.45, coarse/fine aggregate of 1.5, and 1.5% SP dosage. Table 2 shows the material proportions of concrete mixtures. To avoid the effect of the absorption ratio on the results, all aggregates (nature aggregate–CWF) used in this investigation had a dry saturated surface.

2.3. Testing of Fresh Concrete

A slump test (Abram’s cone) was carried out in fresh concrete according to ASTM C143 [37] to evaluate the effects of CWP and CWF on workability.

2.4. Testing of Hardened Concrete

2.4.1. Compressive Strength

According to BS EN 12390-3 [38], nine 100 mm cubes were used for the compressive strength test, three specimens for each period (7, 28, and 90 days). The test was conducted using a compression testing machine with a 2000 KN capacity, as illustrated in Figure 2a.

2.4.2. Flexural Strength

The method described by standard ASTM-C78-16 [39] was utilized to determine the flexural strength. Tests were performed using the three-point method on specimens with dimensions of 100 × 100 × 500 mm at 28 days, as shown in Figure 2b.

2.4.3. Water Penetration

Standard specimens (150 mm cubes) were placed in the permeability cells of the testing device to assess the water permeability of concrete. As illustrated in Figure 2c, water is pushed to flow from one face to the other under a pressure of 500 ± 50 kPa for 72 ± 2 h. According to the EN 12390-8:2009 standard [40], the permeability of concrete samples was measured as the depth of water penetration.

2.4.4. Elevated Temperatures

To evaluate the impact of elevated temperature on concrete compressive strength, the specimens were exposed for 2 h to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C, as shown in Figure 2d. A cooling regime was applied slowly to the air following the heating process.

2.4.5. Microstructure

It is crucial to clarify the effects of ceramic waste on the concrete microstructure. The degree of microstructure density in the mixed concrete was assessed using SEM and EDX analyses. In order to prepare the samples for EDX and SEM imaging, broken concrete cube core particles with diameters of 1 × 1 × 1 cm were taken from the center and coated with gold nanoparticles (nano-gold).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Slump

Figure 3 depicts the slump values of all concrete mixtures. The slump value of the control mixture was 21 cm. It can be observed that the slump exhibited a decreasing trend with rising ceramic waste fine (CWF) content. At replacement ratios of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of natural sand by CWF, the slump values decreased by 9.5%, 26.2%, 38.1%, and 50%, respectively. This could be linked to the higher water absorption behavior of waste ceramics [41]. Also, the incorporation of ceramic waste powder (CWP) as a partial replacement for cement resulted in a significant decrease in slump values. As the replacement level of CWP increased, the slump value decreased. This might be because CWP has a higher specific surface area than cement. The highest reduction in the slump values appears when replacing sand with CWF along with the replacement of cement with CWP, and the degree of workability decreases significantly as the decrease in the slump value reaches 81% when the sand is completely replaced with CWF, with a replacement of 30% of cement with CWP. These results agreed with those of Li et al. [11], Alaa M. Rashad, and Ghada M.F. Essa [42], while they conflicted with those of Kannan et al. [7] and Vejmelková et al. [19].

3.2. Compressive Strength

Figure 4 depicts the average results of the sample tests for compression at 7, 28, and 90 days. Age-related increases in compressive strength are clearly a trend, as predicted. The compressive strength varied between (14.6 and 28.9 MPa), (25.2 and 44.2 MPa), and (26.1 and 48.7 MPa) at ages 7, 28, and 90 days, respectively. Slight improvements in concrete compressive strength were obtained at a replacement level of CWF up to 50%; the strengths increased by 3%, 5.33%, and 6.4% at ages of 7, 28, and 90 days, respectively. These results agreed with López et al. [14] and Jiménez et al. [43]. The rough surface and irregular shape of the CWF may have improved the interlocking between the fine aggregate and the paste, which increased strength.
On the other hand, the incorporation of CWP instead of cement significantly affected the compressive strength results. These results show a reduction in compressive strength at age 7 days with an increase in CWP content. This is because the CWP’s low CaO content results in a relatively constrained initial hydraulic reactivity [7]. The mixture contained 30% CWP replacing cement and 100% CWF instead of sand, which achieved a minimum value of compressive strength (14.6 MPa) at age 7 days. The primary causes of the reduction in early compressive strength are the immature pozzolanic reaction in the concrete and the preventive production of C-S-H gel influenced by elements in ceramic powder. However, the use of 10% CWP as a replacement for cement increases the compressive strength of later ages except for in the mixture containing 100% CWF as a fine aggregate. The mixture composed of 360 kg/m3 cement, 40 kg/m3 CWP, 358 kg/m3 sand, 358 kg/m3 CWF, 1072 kg/m3 dolomite, 180 kg/m3 water, and 6 kg/m3 superplasticizer achieved the maximum compressive strength at ages 28 and 90 days, with strengths of 44.2 and 48.7 MPa, respectively. The strength increase obtained in mixtures 5 and 8 is related to the extreme decrease in the slump values of 14 and 33%, respectively, due to the higher water demand of the modified mixtures. The results of Vejmelkova et al. [19] showed a similar trend with regard to the impact of CWP on the compressive strength of concrete.

3.3. Flexural Strength

The tensile strength of concrete may also be measured using its flexural strength. An unreinforced concrete slab or beam is protected by this characteristic against bending failure. It is also known by the names transverse rupture, bend strength, and modulus of rupture. Figure 5 illustrates how the replacement rate of CWP and CWF affects the flexural strength of concrete mixes. It is clear that the findings of flexural strength follow the same trend as the results of compressive strength. The use of 25% and 50% CWF as a partial substitute for sand enhanced the flexural strength by 3.39% and 4.24%, respectively, whereas the replacement ratios of 75% and 100% reduced flexural strength by 9.66% and 22%, respectively. This increase in strength might be attributed to improved interlocking between the CWF aggregate and cement paste. According to Debieb and Kenai [44], the rough surface and angular shape of the crushed material are often favorable for a strong connection between the cement paste and the crushed brick aggregates, which might increase the flexural strength. The reduction in flexural strength at a high replacement ratio of CWF agreed with De Brito et al. [44], which revealed that a 25.7% reduction in flexural strength was obtained at a replacement ratio of 100%. On the other hand, the use of CWP instead of cement along with CWF significantly affected the concrete flexural strength. The optimum value of concrete flexural strength (6.38 MPa) was achieved with the incorporation of 10% CWP as a substitution for cement, along with 50% CWF as a replacement for sand. The concrete flexural strength significantly decreased as a result of the high replacement levels of cement by CWP. This result agreed with Huseien et al. [42].

3.4. Water Penetration

The durability of a concrete structure is significantly influenced by its permeability. The water penetration test was performed on eight mixes (Co, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, and 10). The depth of water penetration observed in CWF specimens compared to the control mixture is shown in Figure 6. The average water penetration depth increases by 9.6%, 21.2%, 32.7%, and 57.7% in concrete specimens containing 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% CWF, respectively, compared to the control mixture. The angularity and roughness of CWF lead to greater voids, causing a slightly higher depth of water penetration. When comparing mix 2 with mix 8, 9, and 10, it is found that the use of 10% CWP instead of cement reduces the negative effect of CWF on concrete permeability. El-Dieb et al. [45] indicated that the incorporation of CWP material as a cement substitute in concrete resulted in a reduction in the number of permeable pores. This can be a result of the CWP’s high specific surface area microfilling capability, which reduces the volume of permeable pores by enhancing particle packing in the mixture. However, the use of higher levels of CWP increased the water penetration depth. The partly unreacted particles were affected by the increase in CWP level, and a less dense C-(A)-S-H gel was created, resulting in a more porous structure and increased water penetration [42]. In general, the concrete permeability significantly increases with the increase in CWF replacement ratio, and the incorporation of CWP reduces this negative impact.

3.5. Elevated Temperature

When concrete is subjected to elevated temperatures, the characteristics of its constituent components, such as aggregate type, cement paste, the bond between cement and aggregate, and the associated thermal characteristics between aggregate and cement, have a major impact on the behavior of the concrete [46]. The binding system and aggregates of the matrix, as well as their interfacial transition zone (ITZ), are significantly impacted by exposure at severe temperatures, which causes a number of physicochemical changes [47]. Numerous physicochemical changes occur when concrete is heated, changing the material’s thermo-mechanical characteristics [48]. The gradual increase in capillary water loss resulting from a rise in water temperature from 20 °C to 80 °C is what causes the initial reactions. Ettringite dehydrates and decomposes between 80 °C and 100 °C [49]. At temperatures above 100 °C, water chemically related to C-S-H gel is noticeably released [50]. The loss of bound water, the intensive shrinkage, the chemical bond breakage, and the aggregate transformations are the key factors leading to strength loss at a temperature range of 600 °C [47]. In this investigation, the specimens were placed inside the furnace and exposed to 200–800 °C for 2 h at age 90 days, and the remaining compressive strength was measured. The heating regimen used in this research is shown in Figure 7. Residual and relative compressive strength values of the concrete specimens with CWF and CWP are illustrated in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively. Apparently, the proportions of CWP, CWF, and temperature degree have a direct impact on residual compressive strength. The initial compressive strength of the control mixture (without ceramic waste) exhibits a minor decrease at 200 and 400 °C, then a significant reduction rate at 600 °C and 800 °C, when it attains its lowest value. This drop can be attributed to the release of the crystallization’s water, which results in the dissolution of the CSH gel, and the formation of microcracks. After being heated to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C, respectively, the control mixture’s initial compressive strength was decreased by 15.75%, 23.97%, 40.64, and 58.3%. This indicates that at these temperatures, mixtures without ceramic waste retain about 84.25%, 76.03%, 59.36%, and 35.84% of their initial strength (Figure 9). The strength loss in concrete mixtures is reduced by the use of CWF, and the residual compressive strength is increased with an increase in the replacement ratio. The mixture containing 100% CWF instead of sand achieved relative compressive strengths of 93.37%, 87.02%, 71.82%, and 49.17% after being heated to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C, respectively. These results agreed with those of M. Canbaz [51]. According to many authors [52,53], the fundamental reason for this improvement is a better compatibility of the coefficient of thermal expansion between cement paste and recycled aggregates, which decreases micro- and macro-cracking in the cement paste and interface. The micro-cracking appears clearly in the control mixture which contains 100% of the cement and natural fine aggregate (Figure 10a); these micro-cracks disappear gradually with the increase in CWF content (Figure 10b), and approximately disappear in the concrete mixture containing 100% CWF and 30% CWP (Figure 10c). The beneficial impact of CWF may be traced back to its pozzolanic capacity to improve compressive strength at high temperatures. This increase in the resistance of concrete containing CWF to elevated temperatures can be maximized by replacing part of the cement with CWP; this can be clearly seen by comparing mixes 1, 2, 3, and 4 with mixes (5, 6, 7), (8, 9, 10), (11, 12, 13), and (14, 15, 16), respectively. A mixture containing 100% CWF as a replacement for sand and 30% CWP as a replacement for cement can keep about 95.02%, 89.66%, 74.33%, and 51.34% of its original strength after exposure to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C, respectively.

3.6. Concrete Microstructure

A SEM test was used to determine the degree of microstructure density of the concrete mixture incorporating ceramic waste. Concrete samples from some selected mixes incorporating CPW and CWF in various concentrations were examined using SEM and EDX at age 28 days. The micrographs of three specimens including control mix, mix 2 (50% CWF), and mix 10 (30% CWP + 50%CWF) are illustrated in Figure 11a–c, respectively. The control mixture had some unreacted and partially reacted particles, and the microstructure was relatively loose, with numerous voids embedded therein (Figure 11a), while Figure 11b shows that the use of 50% CWF instead of sand exhibited a dense surface with less pores. On the other hand, the other specimen with 30% CWP + 50%CWF contained a larger amount of particles partly reacted and non-reacted (Figure 11c). It has been demonstrated that increasing the CWP concentration has a deleterious influence on the formation of C-(A)-S-H gels, resulting in more non-reacted particles such as quartz and partly reacted gels such as mullite [42]. EDX analyses shown in Figure 12 indicate a reduction in the Ca/Si ratio of a mixture containing 50% CWF instead of sand compared to the reference mixture. Meanwhile, the mixture containing 30% CWP + 50%CWF exhibited a high ratio of Ca/Si compared to the other two mixtures. The test results show that the consumption of calcium hydroxide lowers the ratio of Ca/Si, which enhances the micromechanical properties of the stage of calcium silicates that is hydrated.

4. Conclusions

The possibility of incorporating ceramic waste fine (CWF) as a substitute for natural fine aggregates along with ceramic waste powder (CWP) as a substitute for Portland cement in concrete production and their effect on fresh properties, mechanical performance, durability, and resistance to elevated temperature have been investigated in this study. The study’s findings can be summarized as follows:
  • The increase in the replacement levels of CWP and CWF as partial replacements for natural fine aggregate and cement, respectively, decreases the slump value of concrete mixtures.
  • The mechanical performance of concrete mixtures, systematically enhanced by the incorporation of ceramic waste under compression and flexural tests as the replacement ratio of CWF, increases up to 50% with the use of 10% CWP instead of cement. The mixture composed of 360 kg/m3 cement, 40 kg/m3 CWP, 358 kg/m3 sand, 358 kg/m3 CWF, 1072 kg/m3 dolomite, 180 kg/m3 water, and 6 kg/m3 superplasticizer achieved its maximum compressive strengths at ages 28 and 90 days, and the strengths were 44.2 and 48.7 MPa, respectively.
  • The use of 25% and 50% CWF as a partial substitute for sand enhanced flexural strength by 3.39% and 4.24%, respectively, whereas the replacement ratios of 75% and 100% reduced the flexural strength by 9.66% and 22%, respectively. The optimum value of concrete flexural strength (6.38 MPa) was achieved with the use of 10% CWP as a replacement for cement along with 50% CWF as a replacement for sand.
  • The water permeability of concrete significantly increases with the increase in CWF replacement ratio. The average water penetration depth increases by 9.6%, 21.2%, 32.7%, and 57.7% in concrete specimens containing 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% CWF, respectively, compared to the control mixture, and the incorporation of CWP reduces this negative impact.
  • The values of residual and relative compressive strength of concrete specimens containing CWF and CWP and exposed to elevated temperatures increased with the increases in CWF and CWP content. The residual compressive strength was up to 95.02%, 89.66%, 74.33%, and 51.34% after exposure to 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C temperatures, respectively, compared to the control mixture which achieved 84.25%, 76.03%, 59.36%, and 35.84% of its initial strength.
  • Microstructure analysis revealed that increasing the CWP concentration has a deleterious influence on the formation of C-(A)-S-H gels, resulting in more non-reacted and partly reacted particles, and combining CWP and CWF significantly improves cement hydration when compared to the reference mixture.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.E.E.; Data curation, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Formal analysis, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Funding acquisition, W.E.E. and I.S.A.; Investigation, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Methodology, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Project administration, A.M.T. and I.S.A.; Resources, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Software, W.E.E.; Supervision, W.E.E. and A.M.T.; Validation, I.S.A.; Visualization, A.M.T. and I.S.A.; Writing original draft, W.E.E.; Writing—review & editing, A.M.T. and I.S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Buildings 13 02726 g001
Figure 1. Processing steps of CWP and CWF.
Figure 1. Processing steps of CWP and CWF.
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Figure 2. The tests performed: (a) compressive strength, (b) flexural strength, (c) water permeability, and (d) elevated temperature.
Figure 2. The tests performed: (a) compressive strength, (b) flexural strength, (c) water permeability, and (d) elevated temperature.
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Figure 3. Results of the slump test.
Figure 3. Results of the slump test.
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Figure 4. Compressive strengths of concrete mixtures.
Figure 4. Compressive strengths of concrete mixtures.
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Figure 5. Flexural strength of concrete mixtures.
Figure 5. Flexural strength of concrete mixtures.
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Figure 6. Water penetration depth of concrete mixtures with CWF and CWP replacement.
Figure 6. Water penetration depth of concrete mixtures with CWF and CWP replacement.
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Figure 7. Heating regime.
Figure 7. Heating regime.
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Figure 8. Effect of CWF and CWP on compressive strength of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures.
Figure 8. Effect of CWF and CWP on compressive strength of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures.
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Figure 9. Relative compressive strength at various elevated temperatures.
Figure 9. Relative compressive strength at various elevated temperatures.
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Figure 10. Surface shape of samples. (a) Co mix, (b) Mix 4, and (c) Mix 16 before and after exposure to 800 °C.
Figure 10. Surface shape of samples. (a) Co mix, (b) Mix 4, and (c) Mix 16 before and after exposure to 800 °C.
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Figure 11. The SEM and EDX images of (a) Control mix, (b) Mix 2, and (c) Mix 10.
Figure 11. The SEM and EDX images of (a) Control mix, (b) Mix 2, and (c) Mix 10.
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Figure 12. EDX analysis of (a) Control mix, (b) Mix 2, and (c) Mix 10.
Figure 12. EDX analysis of (a) Control mix, (b) Mix 2, and (c) Mix 10.
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Table 1. Oxide composition of OPC and CWP.
Table 1. Oxide composition of OPC and CWP.
Chemical Composition (%)CaOSiO2Al2O3Fe2O3Na2OMgOK2OSO3
Cement59.323.44.723.620.232.740.122.95
CWP1.5168.818.41.053.523.251.98-
Table 2. Mixture proportions (kg/m3).
Table 2. Mixture proportions (kg/m3).
MixMixture IDCementCWPSandCWFDolomiteWaterSP
Co0%CWP + 0%CWF4000716010721806
10%CWP + 25%CWF400053717910721806
20%CWP + 50%CWF400035835810721806
30%CWP + 75%CWF400017953710721806
40%CWP + 100%CWF4000071610721806
510%CWP + 25%CWF3604053717910721806
620%CWP + 25%CWF3208053717910721806
730%CWP + 25%CWF28012053717910721806
810%CWP + 50%CWF3604035835810721806
920%CWP + 50%CWF3208035835810721806
1030%CWP + 50%CWF28012035835810721806
1110%CWP + 75%CWF3604017953710721806
1220%CWP + 75%CWF3208017953710721806
1330%CWP + 75%CWF28012017953710721806
1410%CWP + 100%CWF36040071610721806
1520%CWP + 100%CWF32080071610721806
1630%CWP + 100%CWF280120071610751806
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MDPI and ACS Style

Elemam, W.E.; Agwa, I.S.; Tahwia, A.M. Reusing Ceramic Waste as a Fine Aggregate and Supplemental Cementitious Material in the Manufacture of Sustainable Concrete. Buildings 2023, 13, 2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112726

AMA Style

Elemam WE, Agwa IS, Tahwia AM. Reusing Ceramic Waste as a Fine Aggregate and Supplemental Cementitious Material in the Manufacture of Sustainable Concrete. Buildings. 2023; 13(11):2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112726

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elemam, Walid E., Ibrahim Saad Agwa, and Ahmed M. Tahwia. 2023. "Reusing Ceramic Waste as a Fine Aggregate and Supplemental Cementitious Material in the Manufacture of Sustainable Concrete" Buildings 13, no. 11: 2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112726

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