Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties of Graphene-Epoxy Nanocomposites—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Epoxy as Matrix
3. Graphene as Reinforcement
4. Fracture Toughness
5. Structure and Fracture Toughness
6. Surface Area and Fracture Toughness
7. Weight Fraction and Fracture Toughness
8. Dispersion State and Fracture Toughness
9. Functionalization and Fracture Toughness
10. Crosslink Density and Fracture Toughness
11. Fracture Patterns
12. Other Mechanical Properties
13. Thermal Properties
14. Electrical Properties
15. Conclusions
- Epoxy is an excellent matrix for graphene composites because of its efficient properties such as enhancement in composite mechanical properties, processing flexibility, and acceptable cost [2].
- Graphene can significantly enhance the fracture toughness of epoxy nanocomposites—i.e., up to 131% [59]. When epoxy is reinforced with graphene, the carbonaceous sheets shackle the crack and restrict its advancement. This obstruction and deflection of the crack by the graphene at the interface is the foremost mechanism of raising the fracture toughness of nanocomposites.
- The graphene sheets with smaller length, width, and thickness are more efficient in improving the fracture toughness than those with larger dimensions [57]. Large graphene sheets have a high stress concentration factor, because of which crack generation becomes easy in the epoxy matrix [118,119]. The cracks deteriorate the efficiency of graphene in enhancing the fracture toughness of epoxy/graphene nanocomposites.
- Uniformly dispersed graphene improves fracture toughness significantly as compared to the poorly dispersed graphene [72]. It is evident from the published literature that the fracture toughness dropped when graphene weight fraction was increased beyond 1 wt %. The decrease in fracture toughness with higher weight fraction of graphene can be correlated with the dispersion state of graphene. As graphene weight fraction increases beyond 1 wt %, the dispersion state becomes inferior.
- Three roll milling or calendering process is an efficient way of dispersing the reinforcement into a polymer matrix, as it involves high shear forces [244,245,246,247,248]. However, the maximum enhancement in fracture toughness was achieved with a combination of sonication and mechanical stirring [59].
- In thermosetting materials such as epoxy, high crosslink density is desirable for improved mechanical properties. However, fracture toughness is dropped with high crosslinking [57].
- The literature has proved the absence of consensus of graphene’s role in improving the mechanical properties of nanocomposites [150,151,152,153,154]. Generally, graphene acts as panacea and raises the mechanical properties [116,155,156,157,158]. On the contrary, it acts as placebo and shows no effect on mechanical properties. Even worse, it is inimical and razes the mechanical properties [160,161,162,163,164]. The main factors that dictate graphene’s influence on the mechanical properties of epoxy nanocomposites include topographical features, morphology, weight fraction, dispersion state, surface modifications, and interfacial interactions.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
3DGN | Three dimensional graphene network |
3RM | Three roll milling |
A | Aramid fibers |
APTS-GO | Amino-functionalized graphene oxide (GO) |
ATGO | 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane functionalized silica nanoparticles attached GO |
ATP | Attapulgite |
ATS | 3-amino functionalized silica nanoparticles |
BM | Ball milling |
CM | Centrifugal mixing |
CNF | Carbon nanofiber |
CNFs | Vapor grown carbon nanofibers |
CNTs | Carbon nanotubes |
DDS | Diaminodiphenylsulfone |
DGEBA-f-GO | Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A functionalized GO |
DRA | Discontinuously reinforced aluminum |
DRTi | Discontinously reinforced titanium |
EGNPs | Amine functionalized expanded graphene nanoplatelets |
EMCs | Epoxy matrix composites |
fGnPs | Polybenzimidazole functionalized graphene platelets (GnPs) |
GF | Graphene foam |
G-NH2 | Amino-functionalized GNPs |
GnPs | Graphene platelets |
GNPs* | Graphite nanoplatelets |
GNs | Amine functionalized graphene sheets |
GNSs | Graphene nanosheets |
GO | Graphene oxide |
GP | Graphite particles |
GPLs | Graphene nanoplatelets |
GPTS-GO | Epoxy functionalized GO |
G-Si | Silane modified GNPs |
HPH + 3RM | High pressure homogenizer + three roll milling |
HSM | High speed mixing |
m-clay | Surface modified nano clay |
m-CNFs | Triazole functionalized carbon nanofibers |
MERGO | Microwave exfoliated reduced graphene oxide |
m-GnP | Surface modified GnP |
m-GnP* | Surfactant modified graphene platelets |
m-GP | Surface modified graphene platelets |
MgSr | Magnetic stirring |
MLG | Multi-layer graphene |
MS | Mechanical stirring |
MS + USn | Mechanical stirring + Ultrasonication |
MWCNTs | Multi-walled carbon nanotubes |
MWNTs | Multi-walled carbon nanotubes |
ND | Nanodiamond |
P | Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers |
p-CNFs | Pristine carbon nanofibers |
PEA | Polyetheramine |
phr | Per hundred parts of resin |
PMCs | Polymer matrix composites |
Q/I | Quasi-isotropic |
RGO | Thermally reduced graphene oxide |
SA | Surface area |
SATPGO | 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane modified silica nanoparticles attached graphene oxide |
SCFs | Short carbon fibers |
ShM | Shear mixing |
Silane-f-GO | Silane functionalized GO |
SM | Speed mixing |
Sn | Sonication |
Sn + BM | Sonication + Ball milling |
Sn + MgSr | Sonication + Magnetic stirring |
Sn + MS | Sonication + Mechanical stirring |
SnP | Silver nanoparticles |
SnW | Silver nanowires |
SWCNTs | Single-walled carbon nanotubes |
SWNTs | Single-walled carbon nanotubes |
TEM | Transmission electron microscopy |
TPE | Two phase extraction |
UG | Unmodified graphene nanoplatelets |
U-GnP | Unmodified graphene platelets |
USn | Ultrasonication |
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Sr. | Authors | Year | Reinforcement/(wt %) | Dispersion method | % Increase in K1C (MPa·m1/2) | Remarks | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Wan et al. | 2014 | GO (0.25 wt %) | Sn + BM | 25.6 | K1C drops after 0.25 wt % of reinforcement | [63] | |
DGEBA-f-GO (0.25 wt %) | 40.7 | |||||||
2 | Sharmila et al. | 2014 | MERGO (0.25 wt %) | MS + USn | 63 | K1C drops after 0.25 wt % of reinforcement | [64] | |
3 | Zhang et al. | 2014 | GnPs (0.5 wt %) | Sn | 27.6 | Trend still increasing | [65] | |
fGnPs (0.3 wt %) | 50.5 | K1C drops after 0.3 wt % of reinforcement | ||||||
4 | Moghadam et al. | 2014 | UG (0.5 wt %) | 3RM | 55 | K1C drops after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [66] | |
GO (0.5 wt %) | 57 | |||||||
G-NH2 (0.5 wt %) | 86 | |||||||
G-Si (0.5 wt %) | 86 | |||||||
5 | Ma et al. | 2014 | m-GnP (1 wt %) | MS + Sn | 131 | K1C drops after 1 wt % of reinforcement of m-GnP | [59] | |
6 | Chandrasekaran et al. | 2014 | TRGO (0.5 wt %) | 3RM | 44.5 | Trend still increasing | [67] | |
GNP (1 wt %) | 49 | K1C drops after 1 wt % | ||||||
MWCNTs (0.5 wt %) | 12.7 | Trend still increasing | ||||||
7 | Wan et al. | 2014 | GO (0.1 wt %) | Sn + BM | 24 | K1C improves with silane functionalization | [68] | |
Silane-f-GO (0.1 wt %) | 39 | |||||||
8 | Zaman et al. | 2014 | m-clay (2.5 wt %) | MS | 38 | K1C drops after 2.5 wt % m-clay | [69] | |
m-GP (4 wt %) | 103 | Trend still increasing | ||||||
9 | Jiang et al. | 2014 | SATPGO (0.5 wt %) | USn | 92.8 | K1C drops after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [70] | |
10 | Shokrieh et al. | 2014 | GPLs (0.5 wt %) | Sn | 39 | K1C drops after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [71] | |
GNSs (0.5 wt %) | 16 | |||||||
11 | Jia et al. | 2014 | GF (0.1 wt %) (resin infiltration) | None | 70 | K1C did not change much between 0.1 to 0.5 wt % | [58] | |
12 | Tang et al. | 2013 | Poorly dispersed RGO (0.2 wt %) | Sn | 24 | Trend still increasing | [72] | |
Highly dispersed RGO (0.2 wt %) | Sn + BM | 52 | ||||||
13 | Wang et al. | 2013 | GO | 10.79 µm (0.5wt %) | USn | 12 | K1C drops after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [57] |
1.72 µm (0.5 wt %) | 61 | |||||||
0.70 µm (0.1 wt %) | 75 | |||||||
14 | Chandrasekaran et al. | 2013 | GNPs* (0.5 wt %) | 3RM | 43 | Dispersion and K1C improved with three roll milling | [73] | |
15 | Li et al. | 2013 | APTS-GO (0.5 wt %) | USn | 25 | Trend still increasing | [74] | |
GPTS-GO (0.2 wt %) | 43 | K1C drops after 0.2 wt % of reinforcement | ||||||
16 | Shadlou et al. | 2013 | ND (0.5 wt %) | USn | No effect | Fracture toughness improvement is higher by CNF and GO (high aspect ratio) compared with that by spherical ND | [75] | |
CNF (0.5 wt %) | 4.3 | |||||||
GO (0.5 wt %) | 39.1 | |||||||
17 | Jiang et al. | 2013 | GO (0.1 wt %) | Sn | 31 | Trend remains same after 1 wt % of reinforcement | [76] | |
ATS (1 wt %) | 58.6 | K1C drops after 0.1 wt % of reinforcement | ||||||
ATGO (1 wt %) | 86.2 | The maximum improvement is achieved with functionalization | ||||||
18 | Liu et al. | 2013 | p-CNFs (0.4 wt %) | Sn | 41 | Trend still increasing | [77] | |
m-CNFs (0.4 wt %) | 80 | |||||||
19 | Wang et al. | 2013 | ATP (1 wt %) | Sn | 14 | K1C drops after 0.1 wt % | [78] | |
GO (0.2 wt %) | 19 | Trend still increasing after 0.2 wt % | ||||||
ATP (1 wt %) + GO (0.2 wt %) | 27 | K1C drops with the further increase in ATP of reinforcement | ||||||
20 | Alishahi et al. | 2013 | ND (0.5 wt %) | Sn | −26.9 | Trend still increasing | [79] | |
CNF (0.5 wt %) | 19 | |||||||
GO (0.5 wt %) | 23 | |||||||
CNT (0.5 wt %) | 23.8 | |||||||
21 | Ma et al. | 2013 | U-GnP (0.5 wt %) | MgSr + USn | 49 | Trend still increasing | [80] | |
m-GnP (0.5 wt %) | 109 | |||||||
22 | Feng et al. | 2013 | Graphene (0.5 wt %) | Sn | 76 | K1C decreases after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [81] | |
23 | Chatterjee et al. | 2012 | GnPs (5 µm, 2 wt %) | 3RM | 60 | Trend still increasing | [82] | |
GnPs (25 µm, 2 wt %) | 80 | |||||||
CNTs (2 wt %) | 80 | |||||||
CNT:GnP = (9:1) (2 wt %) | 76 | |||||||
24 | Chatterjee et al. | 2012 | EGNPs (0.1 wt %) | HPH + 3RM | 66 | K1C drops after 0.1 wt % of reinforcement | [83] | |
25 | Zaman et al. | 2011 | GP (2.5 wt %) | Sn + MS | 57 | The surface modification significantly improved the K1C | [84] | |
m-GP (4 wt %) | 90 | |||||||
26 | Rana et al. | 2011 | CNFs | Sn + MS | 40 | K1C is dependent upon mixing time | [85] | |
27 | Bortz et al. | 2011 | GO (0.5 wt %) | 3RM | 60 | K1C drops after 0.5 wt % of reinforcement | [86] | |
28 | Zhang et al. | 2010 | CNFs (0.5 wt %) | 3RM | 19.4 | Trend still increasing | [87] | |
SCFs (15 wt %) | 125.8 | |||||||
SCF (10 wt %)/CNF (0.75 wt %) | 210 | |||||||
29 | Fang et al. | 2010 | GNs | MS + Sn | 93.8 | Better results with combination of MS and Sn | [88] | |
30 | Jana et al. | 2009 | GP with “puffed” structure (5 wt %) | Sn | 28 | Trend still increasing | [89] | |
31 | Rafiee et al. | 2009 | SWNT (0.1 wt %) | Sn + MS | 17 | Graphene platelets have more influence on K1C than CNTs | [90] | |
MWNT (0.1 wt %) | 20 |
Sr. | Authors | Year | Reinforcement (wt %) | Dispersion method | % Increase in thermal conductivity | Remarks | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Kandre et al. | 2015 | GnP (1.9 wt %) | Sn | 9 | The simultaneous inclusion of GnPs and SnP/SnW at a combined loading of 1 vol % resulted in about 40% enhancement in the through-thickness thermal conductivity, while the inclusion of GnP at the same loading resulted in only 9% improvement. A higher increment with simultaneous addition of GnP and SnP/SnW can be attributed to synergistic effects. | [202] |
SnP/(0.09 wt %) | 18 | ||||||
SnW/(0.09 wt %) | 8 | ||||||
GnP (1.9 wt %), SnP (0.09 wt %) | 38 | ||||||
GnP (1.9 wt %), SnW (0.09 wt %) | 40 | ||||||
2 | Tang et al. | 2015 | Three-dimensional graphene network (3DGNs) (30 wt %) | None | 1,900 | (Composites produced using layer-by-layer dropping method.) The filler with large size is more effective in increasing the thermal conductivity of epoxy because of continuous transmission of acoustic phonons and minimum scattering at the interface due to reduced interfacial area. High intrinsic thermal conductivity of graphene is the major reason for the obtained high thermal conductivity of nanocomposites. | [203] |
Chemically reduced graphene oxide (RGO) (30 wt %) | Sn + MS | 1,650 | |||||
Natural graphite powder (NG) (30 wt %) | 1,400 | ||||||
3 | Burger et al. | 2015 | Graphite flakes (12 wt %) (GRA-12) | Sn + MgSr | 237.5 | As the filler/matrix interfaces increase, the thermal resistance increases due to phonon scattering. In order to improve the thermal conductivity of a composite, it is better to structure a sample with an adapted morphology than trying to have the best dispersion. A 3D-network was first prepared with graphite foils oriented through the thickness of the sample and then stabilized with DGEBA/DDS resin. The produced composite sample was called as “Network”. In “fibers”, all the graphite flakes were aligned through the thickness of sample. When a DGEBA interface layer was applied in “fiber”, the sample was called “Fiber + 1 interface”. When two DGEBA interface layers was applied in “fiber” the sample was called as “Fiber + 2 interfaces”. | [204] |
Graphite flakes (15 wt %) (GRA-15) | 325 | ||||||
Graphite flakes (14–15 wt %) (Network) | 775 | ||||||
Graphite flakes (11–12 wt %) (Fibers) | 666.7 | ||||||
Graphite flakes (11–12 wt %) (Fiber + 1 interface) | 608.3 | ||||||
Graphite flakes (11–12 wt %) (Fiber + 2 interface) | 237.5 | ||||||
4 | Zeng et al. | 2015 | Liquid crystal perylene bisimides polyurethane (LCPU) modified reduced graphene oxide (RGO) (1 wt %) | Sn | 44.4 | Along with the increase in thermal conductivity, the impact and flexural strengths increased up to 68.8% and 48.5%, respectively, at 0.7 wt % LCPU/RGO. | [205] |
5 | Wang et al. | 2015 | GnPs, 1 µm, (GnP-C750) | Sn + MgSr + 3RM | 9.1 | The increase in thermal conductivity is higher in the case of larger particle size than smaller particle size. | [206] |
GnPs, 5 µm | 115 | ||||||
6 | Zhou et al. | 2015 | Multi-layer graphene oxide (MGO) (2 wt %) | Sn | 95.5 | The thermal conductivity decreases after 2 wt % MGO. | [207] |
7 | Zeng et al. | 2015 | Al2O3 nanoparticles (30 wt %) | Sn | 50 | The thermal conductivity can be improved by using hybrid fillers. | [208] |
Aminopropyltriethoxy-silane modified Al2O3 nanoparticles (Al2O3-APS) (30 wt %) | 68.8 | ||||||
Liquid-crystal perylene-bisimide polyurethane (LCPBI) functionalized reduced graphene oxide (RGO) and Al2O3-APS (LCPBI/RGO/Al2O3-APS) | 106.2 | ||||||
8 | Tang et al. | 2015 | Al2O3 (18.4 wt %) | Sn + MS | 59.1 | The increase in thermal conductivity decreases with Al2O3 coating of graphite. | [209] |
Graphite (18.4 wt %) | 254.6 | ||||||
Al2O3-coated graphite (Al2O3-graphite) (18.4 wt %) | 195.5 | ||||||
9 | Pan et al. | 2015 | Perylene bisimide (PBI)-hyper-branched polyglycerol (HPG) modified reduced graphene oxide (RGO), (PBI-HPG/RGO) (1 wt %) | Sn | 37.5 | The filler was observed to be uniformly dispersed, resulting in strong interfacial thermal resistance. | [210] |
10 | Wang et al. | 2015 | SiO2, 15 nm, (1 wt %) | Sn | 14.3 | SiO2 nanoparticles are more effective in increasing thermal conductivity than GO. The maximum improvement in thermal conductivity was observed in the case of hybrid filler. | [211] |
GO (1 wt %) | 4.8 | ||||||
As-prepared nanosilica/graphene oxide hybrid (m-SGO) (1 wt %) | 28.6 | ||||||
11 | Zha et al. | 2015 | GNPs (3.7 wt %), Al2O3 nanoparticles (ANPs), (65 wt %) | Sn + MS | 550.4 | Al2O3 nanofibers are more effective in improving thermal conductivity than Al2O3 nanoparticles. | [212] |
GNPs (3.7 wt %), Al2O3 fibers (Afs) (65 wt %) | 756.7 | ||||||
12 | Zhou et al. | 2015 | Multi-layer graphene oxide (MGO) (2 wt %) | Sn | 104.8 | The thermal conductivity decreases after 2 wt % MGO. | [213] |
13 | Wang et al. | 2015 | GNPs (8 wt %) | MS | 627 | The thermal conductivity increases with GNPs at the loss of Vickers microhardness after 1 wt % of GNP. | [214] |
14 | Pu et al. | 2014 | RGO (1 wt %) | Sn + MgSr | 21.8 | The thermal conductivity decreases after 1 wt % RGO. The silica layer on S-graphene makes electrically conducting graphene insulating, reduces the modulus mismatch between the filler and matrix, and improves the interfacial interactions of the nanocomposites, which results in enhanced thermal conductivity. | [215] |
3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES) functionalized graphene oxide (A-graphene) (8 wt %) | 47.1 | ||||||
Silica-coated A-graphene (S-graphene) (8 wt %) | 76.5 | ||||||
15 | Fu et al. | 2014 | Graphite (44.30 wt %) | MS | 888.2 | The maximum improvement in thermal conductivity was observed in the case of graphene sheets with thickness of 1.5 nm. | [216] |
Graphite nanoflakes (16.81 wt %) | 982.3 | ||||||
Graphene sheets (10.10 wt %) | 2258.8 | ||||||
16 | Li et al. | 2014 | Aligned MLG (AG) (11.8 wt %) | Sn | 16670 | The alignment of MLG causes an exceptional improvement in thermal conductivity and exceeds other filler-based epoxy nanocomposites. | [193] |
17 | Guo and Chen | 2014 | GNPs (25 wt %) | Sn | 780 | Ball milling is more effective in improving the thermal conductivity of GNP/epoxy than sonication. The thermal conductivity decreases when ball milling is carried out for more than 30 h. | [126] |
GNPs (25 wt %) | BM | 1420 | |||||
18 | Corcione and Maffezzoli | 2013 | Natural graphite (NG) (1 wt %) | Sn | 24.1 | The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing wt % of NG after 1 wt %. The thermal conductivity decreases after 2 wt % of GNPs. The maximum improvement in thermal conductivity was observed with expanded graphite. | [217] |
GNPs (2 wt %) | 89.8 | ||||||
Expanded graphite (EGS) (3 wt %) | 232.1 | ||||||
19 | Chandrasekaran et al. | 2013 | GNP (2 wt %) | 3RM | 14 | The thermal conductivity increases with increasing temperature. | [73] |
20 | Min et al. | 2013 | GNPs (5 wt %) | Sn | 240 | High aspect ratio of GNPs and oxygen functional groups play a significant role in improving thermal conductivity of nanocomposites. | [218] |
21 | Hsiao et al. | 2013 | Silica (1 wt %) | Sn + ShM | 19 | The existence of the intermediate silica layer enhances the interfacial attractions between TRGO and epoxy and improved dispersion state, which caused a significant increase in thermal conductivity. | [219] |
Thermally reduced graphene oxide (TRGO) (1 wt %) | 26.5 | ||||||
Silica nanosheets (Silica-NS) (1 wt %) | 37.5 | ||||||
TRGO-silica-NS (1 wt %) | 61.5 | ||||||
22 | Zhou et al. | 2013 | Untreated GNPs (12 wt %) | Sn + MgSr | 139.3 | Silane functionalization can significantly improve thermal conductivity of GNP/epoxy. | [220] |
Silane-treated COOH-MWCNTs (6 wt %) | 192.9 | ||||||
Silane-treated GNPs (6 wt %) | 525 | ||||||
23 | Raza et al. | 2012 | GNPs, 5 µm, 30 wt %, in rubbery epoxy | MS | 818.6 | The thermal conductivity increases with increasing particle size. The particle size distribution significantly influences the thermal conductivity. GNPs with a broad particle size distribution gave higher thermal conductivity than the particles with a narrow particle size distribution, due to the availability of smaller particles that can bridge gaps between larger particles. | [221] |
GNPs, 5 µm, 20 wt %, in rubbery epoxy | ShM | 332.6 | |||||
GNPs, 15 µm, 25 wt %, in rubbery epoxy | MS | 1228.4 | |||||
GNPs, 15 µm, 25 wt %, in rubbery epoxy | ShM | 1118.2 | |||||
GNPs, 20 µm, 20 wt %, in rubbery epoxy | ShM | 684.6 | |||||
GNPs, 20 µm, 12 wt %, in glassy epoxy | ShM | 567.6 | |||||
GNPs, 15 µm, 20 wt %, in glassy epoxy | MS | 683 | |||||
24 | Kim et al. | 2012 | GO (3 wt %) | Sn | 90.4 | The increase in thermal conductivity decreases with Al(OH)3 coating on GO. | [222] |
Al(OH)3-coated graphene oxide (Al-GO) (3 wt %) | 35.1 | ||||||
25 | Chatterjee et al. | 2012 | Amine functionalized expanded graphene nanoplatelets (EGNPs) (2 wt %) | Sn + 3RM | 36 | The EGNPs form a conductive network in the epoxy matrix allowing for increased thermal conductivity. | [83] |
26 | Im and Kim | 2012 | Thermally conductive graphene oxide (GO) (50 wt %) | Sn | 111 | The thermal conductivity decreases after 50 wt %, which can be attributed to residual epoxy that forms an insulting layer on reinforcement. MWCNT helps the formation of 3D network structure. | [223] |
Thermally conductive graphene oxide (GO) (50 wt %), MWCNTs (0.36 wt %) | 203.4 | ||||||
27 | Heo et al. | 2012 | Al2O3 (80 wt %), GO (5 wt %) | 3RM | 1,650 | The increase in thermal conductivity decreases with Al(OH)3 coating of GO. | [224] |
Al(OH)3-coated GO (5 wt %) | 1,450 | ||||||
28 | Huang et al. | 2012 | MWNTs (65 wt %) | MS | 1,100 | GNPs are more effective in improving thermal conductivity than MWNTs. The maximum improvement in thermal conductivity was observed in the case of hybrid fillers. | [225] |
GNPs (65 wt %) | 2,750 | ||||||
MWNTs (38 wt %), GNPs (38 wt %) | 3,600 | ||||||
29 | Teng et al. | 2011 | MWNT (4 wt %) | Sn | 160 | GNPs showed a significantly greater increase in thermal conductivity than MWNTs. The maximum improvement in thermal conductivity is shown by non-covalent functionalized GNS, which can be attributed to high surface area and uniform dispersion of GNS. | [114] |
GNPs(4 wt %) | 700 | ||||||
Poly(glycidyl methacrylate containing localized pyrene groups (Py-PGMA) functionalized GNPs (Py-PGMA-GNS) | 860 | ||||||
30 | Gallego et al. | 2011 | MWNTs (1 wt %) in nanofluids | ShM | 66.7 | The layered structure of MWNTs enables an efficient phonon transport through the inner layers, while SWNTs present a higher resistance to heat flow at the interface, due to its higher surface area. The f-MWNTs have functional groups on their surface, acting as scattering points for the phonon transport. | [226] |
f-MWNTs (0.6 wt %) in nanofluids | 20 | ||||||
SWNTs (0.6 wt %) in nanofluids | 20 | ||||||
Functionalized graphene sheet (FGS) (1 wt %) in nanofluids | 0 | ||||||
GO (1 wt %) in nanofluids | 0 | ||||||
MWNTs(1 wt %) in nanocomposites | 72.7 | ||||||
Functionalized graphene sheet (FGS) (1 wt %) in nanocomposites | 63.6 | ||||||
31 | Tien et al. | 2011 | Graphene flakes (12 wt %) | Sn | 350 | The thermal conductivity increases exponentially with increasing wt % of graphene flakes. | [227] |
32 | Ganguli et al. | 2008 | Exfoliated graphite flakes (20 wt %) | SM | 2,087.2 | The thermal conductivity increases with chemical functionalization. | [177] |
Chemically functionalized graphite flakes (20 wt %) | 2,907.2 | ||||||
33 | Yu et al. | 2008 | Carbon black (CB) (10 wt %) | Sn + ShM | 75 | The hybrid filler demonstrates a strong synergistic effect and surpasses the performance of the individual SWNT and GNP filler. | [228] |
SWNTs (10 wt %) | 125 | ||||||
GNPs (10 wt %) | 625 | ||||||
GNPs (7.5 wt %), SWNTs (2.5 wt %) | 775 |
Sr. | Authors | Year | Reinforcement/wt % | Dispersion method | % Increase in electrical conductivity | Remarks | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Wu et al. | 2015 | GNPs (1.5 wt %), transverse to alignment | Sn + 3RM | 1 × 107 | The maximum thermal conductivity was observed in the case of aligned GNPs. | [229] |
GNPs (3 wt %), randomly oriented | 1 × 108 | ||||||
GNPs (3 wt %), parallel to alignment | 1 × 1010 | ||||||
2 | Liu et al. | 2015 | Graphene woven fabric (GWF) (0.62 wt %) | None. | 1 × 1013 | (Samples were produced using resin infiltration.) The average number of graphene layers in GWFs varied between 4 and 12. | [230] |
3 | Ming et al. | 2015 | Graphene foam (GF) (80 wt %) | None. | 8 × 102 | (Samples were produced using hot pressing.) The electrical conductivity of pure graphene foam (GF) is 2.9 S-cm-1, which is much lower than graphene, which can be because of the presence of structural defects. | [231] |
5 | Ghaleb et al. | 2014 | GNPs (1.1 wt %) | Sn | 1.39 × 106 | GNPs are more effective in improving the thermal conductivity of epoxy than MWCNTs. | [159] |
MWCNTs (1.9 wt %) | 1.62 × 105 | ||||||
6 | Tang et al. | 2014 | GO (5 wt %) | Sn + HSM | 1.92 × 109 | The surface functionalization of GO can significantly improve the electrical conductivity of GO–epoxy. | [232] |
Diamine polyetheramine functionalized GO (GO-D230) (5 wt %) | 1.92 × 1012 | ||||||
7 | Dou et al. | 2014 | Silver plated graphene (Ag-G) (25 wt %) | Sn + MS | 4.13 × 102 | Ag–graphene can be used in electronic applications due to its high electrical conductivity. | [233] |
8 | Tang et al. | 2014 | GO (3.6 wt %) | Sn | 1 × 1018 | The surface functionalization significantly improves electrical conductivity. | [234] |
Polyetheramine refluxed GO (GO-D2000) (3.6 wt %) | 1 × 1017 | ||||||
9 | Monti et al. | 2013 | GNPs (3 wt %) | Sn + MS | 2.08 × 105 | The samples were produced using chloroform. | [235] |
GNPs (3 wt %) | 1.16 × 105 | The samples were produced using tetrahydrofuran. | |||||
10 | Wajid et al. | 2013 | GNPs (0.24 wt %) | Sn + MS | 2.22 × 103 | The samples were produced using dimethylformamide. | [189] |
11 | Chandrakekaran et al. | 2013 | GNPs (1 wt %) | Sn + ShM | 1 × 104 | 3RM is more effective in improving the electrical conductivity of epoxy than sonication and high speed shear mixing. | [73] |
GNPs (2 wt %) | 3RM | 1 × 108 | |||||
12 | Suherman et al. | 2013 | GNPs (80 wt %), CNTs (5 wt %), through-plane | BM + MS | 7.30 × 1017 | The electrical conductivity significantly increases with hybrid filler. | [236] |
GNPs (80 wt %), CNTs (5 wt %), in-plane | 1.80 × 1018 | ||||||
GNPs (80 wt %), through-plane | 4 × 1017 | ||||||
GNPs (80 wt %) in-plane | 5 × 1017 | ||||||
13 | Mancinelli et al. | 2013 | GO (0.5 wt %) | Sn | 240 | The conductivity was measured before post-curing. | [237] |
GO (0.5 wt %) | 730 | The conductivity was measured after post-curing. | |||||
Octadecylamine (ODA)-treated partially reduced and chemically modified GO (MGO) (0.5 wt %) | 550 | The conductivity was reduced after functionalization. | |||||
GO (0.5 wt %) | Two phase extraction | 240 | The system was not fully cured during curing process. | ||||
GO (0.5 wt %) | 7.80 × 103 | The conductivity significantly increased after post-curing. | |||||
14 | Al-Ghamdi et al. | 2013 | Foliated graphite nanosheets (FGNs) (40 wt %) | Centrifugal mixing | 9.90 × 103 | Dielectric properties of epoxy–FGN composites decreased with an increase in frequency. | [238] |
15 | Kim et al. | 2012 | Al(OH)3 functionalized GO (Al-GO) (3 wt %) | MS + MgSr | 75 | The increase in electrical conductivity decreases with Al(OH)3 functionalization of GO. | [239] |
GO (3 wt %) | 115 | ||||||
16 | Heo et al. | 2012 | Al2O3 (80 wt %), Al(OH)3 functionalized GO (Al-GO) (5 wt %) | 3RM | 2.90 × 103 | The increase in electrical conductivity with Al(OH)3 functionalization decreased. The electrically insulating Al(OH)3 on the graphene oxide nanosheet can prevent electron tunneling and act as ion traps which block ion mobility, resulting in a decrease in the electrical properties of nanocomposites. | [224] |
Al2O3 (80 wt %), GO (5 wt %) | 4.90 × 103 | ||||||
17 | Tien et al. | 2011 | Graphite flakes (14 wt %) | Sn | 4 × 107 | The percolation threshold was 8 wt %. | [227] |
18 | Fan et al. | 2009 | GNPs (5 wt %) | Sn + MS | 5.50 × 1010 | The maximum electrical conductivity was observed in the case of hybrid fillers. | [240] |
GNPs (4.5 wt %), carbon black (CB) (0.5 wt %) | 5.50 × 1012 | ||||||
19 | Jovic et al. | 2008 | Expanded graphite (EG) (8 wt %) | Sn | 5.50 × 1017 | The electrical conductivity further increases with the application of electric field. | [241] |
20 | Li et al. | 2007 | MWCNTs (1 wt %) | Sn | 4.63 × 107 | The samples were produced using acetone. | [242] |
21 | Pecastaings et al. | 2004 | MWCNTs (20 wt %) | Sn + MS | 4.53 × 103 | The samples were produced using acetone. | [243] |
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Atif, R.; Shyha, I.; Inam, F. Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties of Graphene-Epoxy Nanocomposites—A Review. Polymers 2016, 8, 281. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080281
Atif R, Shyha I, Inam F. Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties of Graphene-Epoxy Nanocomposites—A Review. Polymers. 2016; 8(8):281. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080281
Chicago/Turabian StyleAtif, Rasheed, Islam Shyha, and Fawad Inam. 2016. "Mechanical, Thermal, and Electrical Properties of Graphene-Epoxy Nanocomposites—A Review" Polymers 8, no. 8: 281. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080281