Inhibition of Low-Grade Inflammation by Anthocyanins after Microbial Fermentation in Vitro
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Anthocyanin-Rich Grape/Bilberry Extract
2.2.2. Determination of ACNs and Metabolites in In Vitro Samples Using UPLC and MS Measurement
2.2.3. Commensal Microorganisms and Culture Conditions
2.2.4. Establishment of an in vitro Epithelial-Endothelial Co-Culture System
2.2.5. Epithelial and Endothelial Cells for the Co-Culture System
Intestinal Epithelial Cells (Caco-2 Cells)
Endothelial Cells
Incubation Studies with MO-Fermented ACNs in the Co-Culture System
2.2.6. Anti-Inflammatory Effects
Leukocyte Cell Adhesion Assay
Analysis of mRNA Expression of Cell Adhesion Molecules and Cytokines by Real-Time PCR
Analysis of Cell Adhesion Molecules by Flow Cytometry
Cytokine Determination
2.2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Microbial Growth Response and ACN Fermentation
3.2. Apical ACN-Degradation after Incubation of Co-Cultured Caco-2 and HUVECs with Batch Cultures from the Lag-, Log- and Stat-Phase
3.3. Inhibition of Leukocyte Adhesion to HUVEC by MO-Fermented ACNs
3.4. Inhibition of Adhesion Molecules Expression on HUVECs under Low-Grade Inflammatory Conditions by Fermented ACNs
3.5. Inhibitory Effects of Fermented ACNs on Cytokine Expression and Secretion in HUVECs under Low-Grade Inflammatory Conditions
3.6. Inhibitory Effects of Fermented ACNs on NF-κB mRNA Expression in HUVECs under Different Low-Grade Inflammatory Conditions and Long-Term Incubation
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Anthocyanins | (mg/L) | (µmol/L) |
---|---|---|
malvidin-3-glucoside | 419.0 ± 1.5 | 849.1 ± 3.0 |
malvidin-3-(6″-p-coumaryl)-glucoside | 102.9 ± 0.6 | 160.9 ± 0.9 |
malvidin-3-(6″-O-acetyl)-glucoside | 87.8 ± 0.5 | 164.0 ± 0.9 |
malvidin-3-arabinoside | 5.4 ± 0.2 | 11.7 ± 0.4 |
malvidin-3,5-diglucoside | 5.3 ± 0.1 | 8.2 ± 0.2 |
Σ malvidin | 615.1 ± 2.8 | 1185.7 ± 5.2 |
peonidin-3-glucoside | 248.9 ± 0.6 | 537.1 ± 1.3 |
peonidin-3-(6″-O-acetyl)-glucoside | 31.2 ± 0 | 61.7 ± 0.0 |
peonidin-3,5-diglucoside | 7.4 ± 0.8 | 11.8 ± 1.3 |
Σ peonidin | 287.5 ± 1.4 | 610.6 ± 2.6 |
delphinidin-3-glucoside | 96.4 ± 1.3 | 207.1 ± 2.8 |
delphinidin-3-arabinoside | 14.2 ± 1 | 32.6 ± 2.3 |
delphinidin-3-galactoside | 15.5 ± 0.2 | 33.3 ± 0.4 |
delphinidin-3-(6″-O-acetyl)-glucoside | 9.1 ± 0.3 | 17.9 ± 0.6 |
Σ delphinidin | 135.2 ± 2 | 290.9 ± 6.1 |
petunidin-3-glucoside | 103.4 ± 0,8 | 215.7 ± 1.7 |
petunidin-3-(6″-p-coumaryl)-glucoside | 29.9 ± 0.2 | 47.8 ± 0.3 |
petunidin-3-(6″-O-acetyl)-glucoside | 17.0 ± 0.1 | 32.6 ± 0.2 |
Σ petunidin | 150.3 ± 1.1 | 296.1 ± 2.2 |
cyanidin-3-glucoside | 62.9 ± 0.5 | 140.0 ± 1.1 |
cyanidin-3-galactoside | 21.8 ± 0.6 | 48.5 ± 1.3 |
cyanidin-3-arabinoside | 17.4 ± 0 | 41.5 ± 0.0 |
Σ cyanidin | 102 ± 1.1 | 230.0 ± 2.4 |
Sum of ACNs | 1295.5 ± 9.3 | 2621.5 ± 18.7 |
Gene | GenBank Accession No. | Primer and TaqMan Probe Sequence |
---|---|---|
E-selectin | M30640 | Forward primer: 5′-CCCGTGTTTGGCACTGTGT-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-GCCATTGAGCGTCCATCCT-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-CAAGTTCGCCTGTCCTG-Tamra-3′ | ||
VCAM-1 | M60335 | Forward primer: 5′-GGGAAGCCGATCACAGTCAA-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-ATGAGATGATCTCCTTTCAGTAAGTCTATC-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-TCAGTTGCTGATGTATACCCATTTGA- CAGGC-Tamra-3′ | ||
ICAM-1 | NM_000201 | Forward primer: 5′-GCAGACAGTGACCATCTACAGCTT-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-CTTCTGAGACCTCTGGCTTCGT-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-CCGGCGCCCAACGTGATTCT-Tamra-3′ | ||
IL-6 | M54894 | Forward primer: 5′-GGTACATCCTCGACGGCATCT-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-GTGCCTCTTTGCTGCTTTCAC-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-TGTTACTCTTGTTACATGTCTCCTTTCTCAGGGCT-Tamra-3′ | ||
IL-8 | M28130 | Forward primer: 5′-AGCTGGCCGTGGCTCTCT -3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-TTTAGCACTCCTTGGCAAAACTG -3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-CAGCCTTCCTGATTTCTGCAGC-TCTGTG-Tamra-3′ | ||
NF-κB (RelA) | NM_62399 | Forward primer: 5′-AGCACAGATACCACCAAGACCC-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-CCAGGGAGATGCGCACTG-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-CATCAAGATCAATGGCTACACGGACCAGG-Tamra-3 | ||
β-actin | NM_002046 | Forward primer: 5′-CCACATCGCTCAGACACCAT-3′ |
Reverse primer: 5′-GTGACCAGGCGCCCAATA-3′ | ||
TaqMan probe: 5′-Fam-AGGTCGGAGTCAACGGATTTGG-Tamra-3′ |
MO | Phase | Time (min) | Del-3-glc | Cy-3-glc | Pet-3-glc | Peo-3-glc | Mal-3-glc |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H. alvei | (1) | 0 | 1.87 ± 1.00 | 0.48 ± 0.01 | 2.49 ± 0.96 | 8.26 ± 1.05 | 12.98 ± 1.25 |
120 | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.45 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.45 | 2.50 ± 0.12 * | 4.41 ± 1.05 * | ||
240 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 0.39 ± 0.05 | 0.35 ± 0.10 | 2.32 ± 0.52 * | 4.04 ± 0.95 ** | ||
(2) | 0 | 1.36 ± 0.59 | 067 ± 1.15 | 2.07 ± 0.61 | 6.50 ± 0.97 | 11.25 ± 2.19 | |
120 | 0.10 ± 0.27 | 0.63 ± 1.02 | 0.77 ± 0.35 | 2.96 ± 1.05 | 5.65 ± 1.05 | ||
240 | 0.05 ± 0.45 | 0.45 ± 0.44 | 0.53 ± 0.25 | 2.34 ± 0.16 * | 4.71 ± 0.15 ** | ||
(3) | 0 | 0.11 ± 0.09 | 0.45 ± 0.25 | 0.48 ± 0.13 | 2.24 ± 0.19 | 4.41 ± 2.56 | |
120 | 0.07 ± 0.06 | 0.41 ± 0.35 | 0.61 ± 0.36 | 0.14 ± 0.17 | 4.96 ± 2.16 | ||
240 | 0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.38 | 0.40 ± 0.46 | 0.20 ± 0.17 | 4.04 ± 1.94 | ||
E. coli | (1) | 0 | 1.16 ± 0.52 | 0.44 ± 0.21 | 1.45 ± 0.32 | 8.69 ± 2.04 | 14.33 ± 3.86 |
120 | nd | 0.39 ± 0.16 | 0.31 ± 0.09 | 4.21 ± 1.49 | 7.57 ± 1.09 | ||
240 | nd | 0.34 ± 0.45 | 0.27 ± 0.06 | 3.84 ± 0.38 * | 7.13 ± 0.68 * | ||
(2) | 0 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.00 | 0.37 ± 0.00 | 0.50 ± 0.00 | |
120 | nd | nd | nd | 0.32 ± 0.00 | 0.64 ± 0.00 | ||
240 | nd | nd | nd | 0.28 ± 0.00 | 0.53 ± 0.00 | ||
(3) | 0 | nd | nd | nd | 0.11 ± 0.00 | 0.16 ± 0.00 | |
120 | nd | nd | nd | 0.10 ± 0.00 | 0.17 ± 0.00 | ||
240 | nd | nd | nd | 0.10 ± 0.00 | 0.19 ± 0.00 | ||
E. faecalis | (1) | 0 | 2.09 ± 1.05 | 2.09 ± 0.28 | 2.93 ± 1.06 | 10.58 ± 2.00 | 15.83 ± 3.55 |
120 | 0.09 ± 0.54 | 0.76 ± 0.25 | 0.82 ± 0.15 | 4.03 ± 1.01 | 7.13 ± 2.49 | ||
240 | nd | 0.63 ± 0.37 | 0.64 ± 0.35 | 3.77 ± 0.66 * | 6.30 ± 1.49 ** | ||
(2) | 0 | 0.30 ± 0.21 | 1.12 ± 2.25 | 1.04 ± 0.54 | 6.18 ± 2.41 | 9.21 ± 2.97 | |
120 | nd | 0.45 ± 0.65 | 0.35 ± 0.55 | 2.88 ± 1.05 | 4.90 ± 2.49 | ||
240 | nd | 0.31 ± 0.35 | 0.15 ± 0.49 | 2.14 ± 1.00 | 3.84 ± 1.19 * | ||
(3) | 0 | 0.24 ± 0.00 | 0.91 ± 0.00 | 0.88 ± 0.00 | 5.22 ± 2.64 | 7.80 ± 5.05 | |
120 | nd | 0.35 ± 0.00 | 0.26 ± 0.00 | 2.45 ± 2.41 | 4.11 ± 2.05 | ||
240 | nd | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.00 | 1.67 ± 1.05 | 2.96 ± 1.05 |
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Kuntz, S.; Kunz, C.; Domann, E.; Würdemann, N.; Unger, F.; Römpp, A.; Rudloff, S. Inhibition of Low-Grade Inflammation by Anthocyanins after Microbial Fermentation in Vitro. Nutrients 2016, 8, 411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8070411
Kuntz S, Kunz C, Domann E, Würdemann N, Unger F, Römpp A, Rudloff S. Inhibition of Low-Grade Inflammation by Anthocyanins after Microbial Fermentation in Vitro. Nutrients. 2016; 8(7):411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8070411
Chicago/Turabian StyleKuntz, Sabine, Clemens Kunz, Eugen Domann, Nora Würdemann, Franziska Unger, Andreas Römpp, and Silvia Rudloff. 2016. "Inhibition of Low-Grade Inflammation by Anthocyanins after Microbial Fermentation in Vitro" Nutrients 8, no. 7: 411. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8070411