Association of Whole Blood Fatty Acids and Growth in Southern Ghanaian Children 2–6 Years of Age
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Setting
2.2. Subjects for the Present Study
2.3. Ethical Standards Disclosure
2.4. Anthropometric Measurements
2.5. Blood Fatty Acid Assessment
2.6. Hemoglobin and Malaria Status
2.7. Dietary Intake Assessment
2.8. Data reduction and Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Subject Characteristics
3.2. Fatty Acid Levels in Whole Blood
3.3. Relationships or Associations between Fatty Acids and Growth Parameters
3.4. Factor Analysis
3.5. Mean Fatty Acid Levels for Northern and Southern Ghana, Compared
3.6. Dietary Intake of Protein and Fat-Rich Foods
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Mean ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
Overall (n = 209) | Male (n = 108) | Female (n = 101) | |
Age (months) | 38.3 ± 9.9 | 38.5 ± 9.9 | 38.2 ± 10.1 |
Height (cm) | 91.5 ± 7.1 | 91.9 ± 7.0 | 90.9 ± 7.2 |
Weight (kg) | 12.8 ± 2.1 | 13.1 ± 1.9 | 12.5 ± 2.2 |
HAZ | −1.4 ± 0.9 | −1.4 ± 0.9 | −1.3 ± 0.9 |
BAZ | −0.3 ± 1.0 | −0.2 ± 0.9 | −0.4 ± 1.1 |
WAZ | −1.0 ± 0.9 | −1.0 ± 0.9 | −1.1 ± 1.1 |
WHZ | −0.4 ± 1.0 | −0.3 ± 0.9 | −0.5 ± 1.1 |
Hb (g/dL) | 10.9 ± 1.4 | 10.8 ± 1.5 | 11.0 ± 1.3 |
Growth Variable | Based on | Severe | Moderate | Unaffected |
---|---|---|---|---|
(<−3SD) | (−3 ≤ SD ≤ −2) | t > −2SD | ||
Stunting | HAZ | 4.3% | 17.7% | 78.0% |
Malnutrition | BAZ | 1.0% | 1.9% | 97.1% |
Underweight | WAZ | 2.4% | 10.5% | 87.1% |
Wasting | WHZ | 1.0% | 2.4% | 96.6% |
Fatty Acid (% Total) | Overall (n = 209) | Stunted (n = 46) | Not Stunted (n = 163) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
C14:0 Myristic Acid | 0.82 ± 0.59 | 0.76 ± 0.41 | 0.84 ± 0.63 | 0.460 |
C16:0 Palmitic Acid | 25.7 ± 1.62 | 25.8 ± 1.53 | 25.6 ± 1.65 | 0.592 |
C18:0 Stearic Acid | 11.9 ± 1.16 | 12.1 ± 1.14 | 11.9 ± 1.16 | 0.209 |
C20:0 Arachidic Acid | 9.18 ± 1.56 | 0.31 ± 0.06 | 0.31 ± 0.06 | 0.752 |
C21:0 Behenic Acid | 0.84 ± 0.41 | 0.59 ± 0.16 | 0.56 ± 0.15 | 0.215 |
C24:0 Lignoceric Acid | 0.90 ± 0.34 | 0.95 ± 0.39 | 0.88 ± 0.32 | 0.251 |
Total sat | 40.2 ± 1.54 | 40.5 ± 1.46 | 40.1 ± 1.56 | 0.108 |
C16:1 Palmitoleic Acid | 0.84 ± 0.41 | 0.88 ± 0.50 | 0.82 ± 0.39 | 0.411 |
C18:1 Oleic Acid | 21.0 ± 2.68 | 20.8 ± 2.56 | 21.0 ± 2.72 | 0.596 |
C20:1 Eicosenoic Acid | 0.34 ± 0.14 | 0.37 ± 0.13 | 0.33 ± 0.14 | 0.156 |
C24:1 Nervonic Acid | 0.83 ± 0.30 | 0.87 ± 0.30 | 0.82 ± 0.29 | 0.248 |
Total MUFA | 23.3 ± 2.70 | 23.2 ± 2.62 | 23.3 ± 2.73 | 0.818 |
C18:3n3 alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | 0.25 ± 0.10 | 0.27 ± 0.12 | 0.25 ± 0.09 | 0.645 |
C20:5n3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) | 0.80 ± 0.35 | 0.74 ± 0.23 | 0.81 ± 0.38 | 0.220 |
C20:5n3 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-3) | 1.01 ± 0.21 | 1.04 ± 0.21 | 1.00 ± 0.21 | 0.364 |
C22:6n3 Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) | 5.09 ± 0.98 | 4.95 ± 0.95 | 5.13 ± 0.98 | 0.263 |
Total n-3 | 7.15 ± 1.34 | 7.00 ± 1.19 | 7.19 ± 1.37 | 0.379 |
Omega-3 Index | 8.03 ± 1.37 | 7.80 ± 1.23 | 8.09 ± 1.40 | 0.204 |
C18:2n6 Linoleic Acid (LA) | 16.7 ± 1.92 | 16.6 ± 2.43 | 16.7 ± 1.76 | 0.589 |
C18:3n6 γ-Linolenic Acid (GLA) | 0.21 ± 0.09 | 0.20 ± 0.10 | 0.21 ± 0.08 | 0.610 |
C20:2n6 Eicosadienoic Acid | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.25 ± 0.06 | 0.25 ± 0.05 | 0.156 |
C20:3n6 Dihomo-γ-linolenic Acid (DGLA) | 1.24 ± 0.23 | 1.30 ± 0.25 | 1.22 ± 0.22 | 0.048 |
C20:4n6 Arachidonic Acid (AA) | 9.18 ± 1.56 | 9.09 ± 1.29 | 9.21 ± 1.64 | 0.645 |
C22:4n6 Docosatetraenoic Acid (DTA) | 1.03 ± 0.25 | 1.09 ± 0.22 | 1.02 ± 0.26 | 0.118 |
C22:5n6 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-6) | 0.45 ± 0.13 | 1.02 ± 0.26 | 0.44 ± 0.13 | 0.262 |
Total n-6 | 29.1 ± 2.60 | 29.0 ± 2.71 | 29.1 ± 2.57 | 0.779 |
C20:3n9 Mead acid | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.07 | 0.09 ± 0.06 | 0.920 |
Total n-6/Total n-3 ratio | 4.19 ± 0.81 | 4.26 ± 0.84 | 4.18 ± 0.08 | 0.561 |
Delta-6-Desaturase (D6D) | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.07 ± 0.02 | 0.027 |
Delta-5-Desaturase (D5D) | 7.61 ± 1.68 | 7.22 ± 1.48 | 7.72 ± 1.72 | 0.054 |
T/T ratio | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.960 |
(a) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Fatty Acid | HAZ | WAZ | ||
B ± SE | p-Value | B ± SE | p-Value | |
C14:0 Myristic Acid | −0.09 ± 0.11 | 0.378 | −0.10 ± 0.12 | 0.382 |
C16:0 Palmitic Acid | −0.04 ± 0.04 | 0.384 | 0.00 ± 0.04 | 0.829 |
C18:0 Stearic Acid | −0.04 ± 0.06 | 0.504 | −0.01 ± 0.06 | 0.921 |
Total sat | −0.07 ± 0.04 | 0.084 | −0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.564 |
C16:1 Palmitoleic Acid | −0.08 ± 0.15 | 0.610 | 0.01 ± 0.16 | 0.957 |
C18:1 Oleic Acid | −0.00 ± 0.02 | 0.924 | 0.01 ± 0.03 | 0.808 |
C20:1 Eicosenoic Acid | −0.78 ± 0.46 | 0.089 | −0.48 ± 0.49 | 0.324 |
C24:1 Nervonic Acid | 0.04 ± 0.22 | 0.860 | 0.14 ± 0.23 | 0.535 |
Total MUFA | −0.01 ± 0.02 | 0.795 | −0.01 ± 0.03 | 0.781 |
C18:3n3 alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | −0.57 ± 0.66 | 0.386 | 0.32 ± 0.70 | 0.651 |
C20:5n3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) | 0.00 ± 0.18 | 0.999 | 0.04 ± 0.19 | 0.846 |
C20:5n3 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-3) | −0.20 ± 0.31 | 0.505 | 0.20 ± 0.33 | 0.529 |
C22:6n3 Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) | 0.06 ± 0.07 | 0.390 | 0.03 ± 0.07 | 0.717 |
Total n-3 | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.646 | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.653 |
C18:2n6 Linoleic Acid (LA) | 0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.220 | −0.02 ± 0.04 | 0.679 |
C18:3n6 γ-Linoleic Acid (GLA) | 0.77 ± 0.68 | 0.254 | 0.82 ± 0.72 | 0.255 |
C20:2n6 Eicosadienoic Acid | 0.50 ± 1.25 | 0.688 | 0.75 ± 1.33 | 0.575 |
C20:3n6 Dihomo-γ-linolenic Acid (DGLA) | 0.05 ± 0.28 | 0.868 | 0.31 ± 0.30 | 0.305 |
C20:4n6 Arachidonic Acid (AA) | 0.01 ± 0.04 | 0.747 | −0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.899 |
C22:4n6 Docosatetraenoic Acid (DTA) | −0.27 ± 0.25 | 0.291 | 0.02 ± 0.27 | 0.948 |
C22:5n6 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-6) | −0.13 ± 0.48 | 0.780 | 0.40 ± 0.51 | 0.434 |
Total n-6 | 0.03 ± 0.03 | 0.319 | −0.01 ± 0.03 | 0.832 |
Total n-6/Total n-3 ratio | 0.02 ± 0.08 | 0.772 | −0.07 ± 0.08 | 0.423 |
Omega-3 Index | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.484 | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.724 |
T/T ratio | 5.51 ± 9.21 | 0.551 | −4.53 ± 9.83 | 0.645 |
Single linear regressions were used to analyze association of blood FA levels and growth. Because many FA are highly correlated, single regression analysis was necessary. Each growth variable (left; HAZ, right; WAZ) was regressed with individual fatty acids, adjusting for hemogloblin and malaria. Model: HAZ = fatty acid + hemoglobin + malaria; WAZ = fatty acid + hemoglobin + malaria. | ||||
(b) | ||||
Fatty Acid | WHZ | BAZ | ||
B ± SE | p-Value | B ± SE | p-Value | |
C14:0 Myristic Acid | −0.10 ± 0.12 | 0.412 | −0.07 ± 0.12 | 0.547 |
C16:0 Palmitic Acid | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.652 | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.550 |
C18:0 Stearic Acid | 0.03 ± 0.06 | 0.587 | 0.03 ± 0.06 | 0.633 |
Total sat | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.53 | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.407 |
C16:1 Palmitoleic Acid | 0.12 ± 0.17 | 0.499 | 0.10 ± 0.17 | 0.557 |
C18:1 Oleic Acid | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.559 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.569 |
C20:1 Eicosenoic Acid | 0.02 ± 0.51 | 0.974 | 0.11 ± 0.51 | 0.831 |
C24:1 Nervonic Acid | 0.19 ± 0.24 | 0.428 | 0.19 ± 0.24 | 0.441 |
Total MUFA | 0.01 ± 0.03 | 0.425 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.436 |
C18:3n3 alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | 0.88 ± 0.73 | 0.231 | 1.06 ± 0.73 | 0.151 |
C20:5n3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) | 0.02 ± 0.20 | 0.903 | 0.03 ± 0.20 | 0.866 |
C20:5n3 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-3) | 0.46 ± 0.34 | 0.181 | 0.49 ± 0.34 | 0.149 |
C22:6n3 Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) | −0.02 ± 0.07 | 0.796 | −0.03 ± 0.07 | 0.716 |
Total n-3 | 0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.886 | 0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.911 |
C18:2n6 Linoleic Acid (LA) | −0.06 ± 0.04 | 0.079 | −0.07 ± 0.04 | 0.073 |
C18:3n6 γ -Linoleic Acid (GLA) | 0.78 ± 0.75 | 0.304 | 0.54 ± 0.75 | 0.477 |
C20:2n6 Eicosadienoic Acid | 0.50 ± 1.39 | 0.674 | 0.51 ± 0.39 | 0.716 |
C20:3n6 Dihomo- γ -linolenic Acid (DGLA) | 0.52 ± 0.39 | 0.095 | 0.52 ± 0.31 | 0.098 |
C20:4n6 Arachidonic Acid (AA) | −0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.564 | −0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.533 |
C22:4n6 Docosatetraenoic Acid (DTA) | 0.27 ± 0.28 | 0.333 | 0.28 ± 0.28 | 0.277 |
C22:5n6 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-6) | 0.66 ± 0.53 | 0.217 | 0.72 ± 0.53 | 0.175 |
Total n-6 | −0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.186 | −0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.173 |
Total n-6/Total n-3 ratio | −0.12 ± 0.09 | 0.180 | −0.12 ± 0.09 | 0.178 |
Omega-3 Index | −0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.862 | −0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.806 |
T/T ratio | −8.27 ± 10.2 | 0.421 | 11.4 ± 10.2 | 0.267 |
Single linear regressions were used to analyze association of blood FA levels and growth variables due to high collinearity among FAs. Each growth variable (left; WHZ, right; BAZ) was regressed with individual fatty acids, adjusting for hemogloblin and malaria. Model: WHZ = fatty acid + hemoglobin + malaria; BAZ = fatty acid + hemoglobin + malaria). |
Fatty Acid | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
DHA | 0.78 | 0.27 | 0.15 | −0.01 |
EPA | 0.76 | −0.06 | −0.20 | −0.11 |
DPA | 0.70 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.02 |
Oleic | −0.70 | −0.37 | −0.37 | 0.19 |
AA | 0.63 | 0.12 | 0.54 | −0.05 |
GLA | −0.36 | 0.04 | 0.33 | 0.36 |
Behenic | 0.04 | 0.91 | 0.00 | −0.01 |
Lignoceric | 0.09 | 0.87 | 0.12 | −0.18 |
Nervonic | 0.05 | 0.82 | 0.14 | −0.18 |
Arachidic | 0.15 | 0.63 | −0.24 | 0.26 |
Stearic | 0.44 | 0.55 | 0.38 | 0.30 |
ALA | −0.06 | −0.18 | −0.18 | −0.05 |
Docosatetraenoic | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.77 | 0.10 |
DGLA | −0.05 | 0.06 | 0.76 | 0.11 |
DPA n-6 | 0.11 | −0.16 | 0.74 | −0.07 |
Eicosadienoic | 0.05 | −0.05 | 0.44 | 0.09 |
Myristic | 0.11 | −0.17 | −0.38 | 0.04 |
LA | −0.02 | −0.06 | −0.02 | –0.75 |
Mead | −0.38 | 0.05 | 0.34 | 0.57 |
Eicosenoic | 0.06 | 0.42 | −0.26 | 0.56 |
Factor | HAZ | WAZ | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | p-Value | Beta | p-Value | |
Hb | −0.02 | 0.617 | −0.01 | 0.887 |
Malaria | −0.001 | 0.316 | −0.001 | 0.378 |
Factor 1 | −0.04 | 0.591 | −0.02 | 0.826 |
Factor 2 | 0.003 | 0.968 | 0.01 | 0.929 |
Factor 3 | 0.03 | 0.602 | 0.06 | 0.406 |
Factor 4 | −0.09 | 0.180 | −0.03 | 0.628 |
Fatty Acid (% of Total) | Southern Ghana n = 209 | Northern Ghana n = 307 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
C18:3n3 alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | 0.25 ± 0.10 | 0.18 ± 0.12 | <0.001 |
C20:5n3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) | 0.80 ± 0.35 | 0.22 ± 0.26 | <0.001 |
C20:5n3 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-3) | 1.01 ± 0.21 | 0.58 ± 0.18 | <0.001 |
C22:6n3 Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) | 5.09 ± 0.98 | 2.62 ± 0.64 | <0.001 |
Total n-3 | 7.15 ± 1.34 | 3.61 ± 0.91 | <0.001 |
Omega-3 Index | 8.03 ± 1.37 | 4.55 ± 0.92 | <0.001 |
C18:2n6 Linoleic Acid (LA) | 16.7 ± 1.92 | 20.6 ± 1.85 | <0.001 |
C18:3n6 γ -Linoleic Acid (GLA) | 0.21 ± 0.09 | 0.17 ± 0.07 | <0.001 |
C20:2n6 Eicosadienoic Acid | 0.25 ± 0.05 | 0.29 ± 0.07 | <0.001 |
C20:3n6 Dihomo-γ-linolenic Acid (DGLA) | 1.24 ± 0.23 | 1.36 ± 0.26 | <0.001 |
C20:4n6 Arachidonic Acid (AA) | 9.18 ± 1.56 | 10.8 ± 1.61 | <0.001 |
C22:4n6 Docosatetraenoic Acid (DTA) | 1.03 ± 0.25 | 1.69 ± 0.37 | <0.001 |
C22:5n6 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA n-6) | 0.45 ± 0.13 | 0.59 ± 0.17 | <0.001 |
Total n-6 | 29.1 ± 2.60 | 35.7 ± 2.53 | <0.001 |
n6/n3 ratio | 4.20 ± 0.81 | 10.3 ± 2.00 | <0.001 |
T/T Ratio | 0.010 ± 0.007 | 0.013 ± 0.005 | <0.001 |
Mead acid | 0.09 ± 0.06 | 0.14 ± 0.05 | <0.001 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Adjepong, M.; Yakah, W.; Harris, W.S.; Colecraft, E.; Marquis, G.S.; Fenton, J.I. Association of Whole Blood Fatty Acids and Growth in Southern Ghanaian Children 2–6 Years of Age. Nutrients 2018, 10, 954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10080954
Adjepong M, Yakah W, Harris WS, Colecraft E, Marquis GS, Fenton JI. Association of Whole Blood Fatty Acids and Growth in Southern Ghanaian Children 2–6 Years of Age. Nutrients. 2018; 10(8):954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10080954
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdjepong, Mary, William Yakah, William S. Harris, Esi Colecraft, Grace S. Marquis, and Jenifer I. Fenton. 2018. "Association of Whole Blood Fatty Acids and Growth in Southern Ghanaian Children 2–6 Years of Age" Nutrients 10, no. 8: 954. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10080954