Automatic Extraction of Road Points from Airborne LiDAR Based on Bidirectional Skewness Balancing
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Stage I: Intensity Filter
2.1.1. Outliers Removal
2.1.2. Right Tail Removal
2.1.3. Intensity Scaling
2.1.4. Bidirectional Balancing
- Intensity values of both road and non-road points are normally distributed (skewness = 0).
- A predominance of road points leads to a left-concentrated distribution (skewness > 0).
- A predominance of ground points leads to a right-concentrated distribution (skewness < 0).
2.2. Stage II: Curvature Filter
2.3. Stage III: Density Filter
2.4. Stage IV: Area Filter
3. Results
3.1. Data and Parameters
3.2. Qualitative Evaluation
3.3. Qualitative Evaluation
4. Discussion
4.1. Intensity Threshold
4.2. Road Width Parameter
4.3. Point Density
4.4. Challenging Conditions
4.5. Comparison with Other Methods
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site | Urbanization | Date | Sensor | Points (M) | Density (p/m2) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcoy | Medium | NA/2013 | Leica ALS60 | 19.14 | 8.65 | Babcock Int. |
Arzúa | Low | 03/2018 | Riegl VQ-480i | 40.70 | 20.35 | Babcock Int. |
Carola | Medium | 07/2010 | Optech Gemini | 44.87 | 10.28 | OpenTopo. [37] |
Logroño | Medium | 09/2016 | Leica ALS80 | 63.80 | 2.00 | PNOA |
St Arnaud | Low | 12/2017 | Riegl LMS-Q1560 | 28.83 | 9.54 | OpenTopo. [38] |
Toronto | High | 02/2009 | Optech Orion M | 13.86 | 6.00 | ISPRS |
Trabada | Low | 11/2004 | Optech 2033 | 29.39 | 4.00 | LaboraTe |
Truro | Medium | 07/2010 | Optech Gemini | 25.93 | 4.35 | OpenTopo. [39] |
Vaihingen | High | 08/2008 | Leica ALS50 | 18.56 | 4.00 | ISPRS |
Victor Harbor | Medium | 09/2011 | Optech Gemini | 43.48 | 2.81 | OpenTopo. [40] |
Site | Completeness | Correctness | Quality |
---|---|---|---|
Alcoy | 0.97 | 0.77 | 0.75 |
Arzúa | 0.81 | 0.82 | 0.69 |
Logroño | 0.99 | 0.80 | 0.79 |
St Arnaud | 0.99 | 0.88 | 0.87 |
Toronto | 0.80 | 0.93 | 0.76 |
Trabada | 0.97 | 0.69 | 0.68 |
Truro | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.94 |
Vaihingen | 0.95 | 0.80 | 0.77 |
Victor Harbor | 0.96 | 0.73 | 0.71 |
Min. | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.68 |
Avg. | 0.93 | 0.83 | 0.78 |
Max. | 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.94 |
Site | SkInit | SkIQR | SkPCT | BDir | IT | IT | Road % | Exec. Time (s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcoy | −0.705 | −0.749 | −0.947 | Forward | 103 | 108 | 18.24 | 117.1 |
Arzúa | −0.937 | −1.174 | −1.570 | Forward | 790 | 135 | 4.15 | 464.4 |
Carola | 81.564 | −0.379 | −0.593 | Forward | 25 | 82 | 15.47 | 186.1 |
Logroño | −0.867 | −0.997 | −1.224 | Forward | 17,760 | 119 | 16.80 | 844.8 |
St Arnaud | −1.542 | −1.564 | −1.682 | Forward | 26,609 | 109 | 2.89 | 101.4 |
Toronto | 3.327 | 0.971 | 1.013 | Backward | 9 | 38 | 41.00 | 88.8 |
Trabada | −0.647 | −0.647 | −0.873 | Forward | 103 | 103 | 19.35 | 186.6 |
Truro | 1.470 | −0.135 | −0.530 | Forward | 154 | 72 | 17.32 | 85.2 |
Vaihingen | 0.434 | 0.398 | 0.183 | Backward | 71 | 71 | 71.10 | 238.8 |
Victor Harbor | 10.327 | −0.470 | −0.627 | Forward | 12 | 91 | 14.62 | 712.2 |
Author | Cp (%) | Cr (%) | Q (%) | No Rasterization | Study Sites |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clode et al. (2007) [7] | 83.50 | 73.50 | 63.50 | ✕ | 2 (Fairfield and Yeronga) |
Samadzadegan et al. (2009) [17] | 53.94 | 56.64 | 53.10 | ✕ | 1 (Castrop-Rauxel) |
Jiangui and Guang (2011) [8] | 60.35 | 66.81 | NA | ✓ | 1 (Shashi) |
Azizi et al. (2014) [18] | 75.07 | 63.02 | 52.11 | ✕ | 1 (Golestan) |
Matkan et al. (2014) [19] | 85.34 | 71.54 | 63.56 | ✓ | 1 (Rheine, 3 areas) |
Niemeyer et al. (2014) [20] | 87.08 | 93.04 | 81.75 | ✓ | 1 (Vaihingen, 3 areas) |
Niemeyer et al. (2015) [21] | 90.40 | 87.30 | 79.90 | ✓ | 1 (Vaihingen, 3 areas) |
Li et al. (2015) [11] | 92.94 | 75.50 | 71.41 | ✓ | 1 (Vaihingen) |
Proposed method | 93.00 | 83.00 | 78.00 | ✓ | 10 (see Table 1) |
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Martínez Sánchez, J.; Fernández Rivera, F.; Cabaleiro Domínguez, J.C.; López Vilariño, D.; Fernández Pena, T. Automatic Extraction of Road Points from Airborne LiDAR Based on Bidirectional Skewness Balancing. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12122025
Martínez Sánchez J, Fernández Rivera F, Cabaleiro Domínguez JC, López Vilariño D, Fernández Pena T. Automatic Extraction of Road Points from Airborne LiDAR Based on Bidirectional Skewness Balancing. Remote Sensing. 2020; 12(12):2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12122025
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartínez Sánchez, Jorge, Francisco Fernández Rivera, José Carlos Cabaleiro Domínguez, David López Vilariño, and Tomás Fernández Pena. 2020. "Automatic Extraction of Road Points from Airborne LiDAR Based on Bidirectional Skewness Balancing" Remote Sensing 12, no. 12: 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12122025