Towards an Urban Resilience Index: A Case Study in 50 Spanish Cities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Spatial Scale and Sample
2.2. Key Factor for Sustaining Resilience in Urban Systems
2.2.1. Diversity
2.2.2. Modularity
2.2.3. Tightness of Feedbacks
2.2.4. Social Cohesion
2.2.5. Innovation
2.3. Indicator Selection
2.3.1. Diversity
2.3.2. Self-Sufficiency
2.3.3. Spaces for Citizen Participation
2.4. Normalization of Data, Weighting and Aggregation
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Data Gaps and Methodological Limitations
4.2. Interpretation of Results and Future Challenges
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
OSE | Observatorio de la Sostenibilidad en España (Spanish Observatory of Sustainability) |
INE | Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spanish Statistical Office) |
LA21 | Local Agenda 21 |
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Core Urban Resilience Factors | Definition | Effect on Resilience | Possible Indicators | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Diversity | Variety of urban system components. | Positive | Diversity of: | [5,19,22,23,26] 1 [24,28] 2 [25,27] 3 |
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Modularity | The way that the system’s components are linked with one another. A modular system is composed of subgroups of components (modules) with strong internal connections, but weak relationships with other subgroups. | Positive | Self-sufficiency | [19,22,23] 1 [24] 2 |
Diversity of: | ||||
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Tightness of feedbacks | Mechanisms that control ecosystems. Tightness of feedbacks is necessary to respond quickly and appropriately to shocks. | Positive | Self-sufficiency | [5,22,23,26,29] 1 [24,64] 2 |
Diversity of institutions | ||||
Social networks | ||||
Social cohesion | Trust, social networks and leadership. It increases the capacity of people to respond collectively to a disturbance. | Positive | Social trust | [5,19,22,23,26,32] 1 [38,45,46,50,54,55] 2 [20,30,31,65,66,67] 3 |
Social networks | ||||
Leadership | ||||
Diversity of organized citizen groups | ||||
Spaces for citizen participation facilitated by institutions | ||||
Degree of citizen participation | ||||
Innovation | Collective learning and experimentation. It allows creating new ways to respond to changes. | Positive | Diversity of organized citizen groups | [22,26] 1 [34] 2 [20,33,68] 3 |
Spaces for citizen participation | ||||
Degree of citizen participation |
Indicator | Factors that Measure | Calculation | Effect on Resilience | Units of Measure | Source | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Business diversity | Diversity and modularity | Shannon diversity index with 4 categories | Positive | Dimensionless | Caja España-Duero [73]. | 2007 |
Land use diversity | Diversity | Shannon diversity index with 9 categories | Positive | Dimensionless | Ministry of Public Works and Transport (Spain) [74]. | 2005 |
Food diversity | Diversity | Shannon diversity index with 37 categories | Positive | Dimensionless | INE a [75]. | 2009 |
Self-sufficiency | Modularity and tightness of feedbacks | Carrying capacity excess: ecological footprint (gha)/municipal area (ha) | Negative | Dimensionless | OSE b [76] and INE [75]. | 2004 and 2014 |
Spaces for citizen participation | Social cohesion and innovation | Local Agenda 21 progress: the total of the milestones that have been completed or are being carried out. Scale from 0 to 10 | Positive | Dimensionless | OSE [76]. | - |
Municipality | Resilience Index Value | Carrying Capacity Excess | Business Diversity (0–1) a | Land Use Diversity (0–1) a | Food Diversity (0–1) a | Local Agenda 21 Progress (0–1) a | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Cáceres | 100 | 2 | 1.09 (0.54) | 1.51 (0.48) | 2.21 (0.42) | 0 (0.0) |
2 | Cuenca | 79 | 3 | 1.00 (0.50) | 0.64 (0.20) | 2.03 (0.39) | 3 (0.3) |
3 | Albacete | 64 | 7 | 1.15 (0.57) | 1.64 (0.52) | 3.52 (0.68) | 10 (1.0) |
4 | Badajoz | 56 | 5 | 1.06 (0.53) | 1.13 (0.36) | 3.91 (0.75) | 0 (0.0) |
5 | Córdoba | 48 | 9 | 1.11 (0.56) | 1.80 (0.57) | 2.71 (0.52) | 8 (0.8) |
6 | Teruel | 34 | 7 | 1.07 (0.53) | 1.50 (0.47) | 2.45 (0.47) | 0 (0.0) |
7 | Jaén | 27 | 9 | 1.30 (0.65) | 1.16 (0.36) | 1.60 (0.31) | 2 (0.2) |
8 | Ávila | 23 | 10 | 0.96 (0.48) | 1.29 (0.41) | 1.57 (0.30) | 1 (0.1) |
9 | Ciudad Real | 19 | 14 | 0.85 (0.42) | 1.27 (0.40) | 2.32 (0.45) | 3 (0.3) |
10 | Soria | 18 | 12 | 1.03 (0.51) | 0.75 (0.24) | 2.29 (0.44) | 1 (0.1) |
11 | Palma de Mallorca | 16 | 19 | 0.91 (0.46) | 1.65 (0.52) | 3.38 (0.65) | 3 (0.3) |
12 | Lugo | 16 | 18 | 0.90 (0.45) | 1.69 (0.53) | 1.64 (0.31) | 4 (0.4) |
13 | Toledo | 15 | 21 | 0.85 (0.43) | 1.62 (0.51) | 3.22 (0.62) | 4 (0.4) |
14 | Guadalajara | 15 | 20 | 0.96 (0.48) | 1.24 (0.39) | 2.11 (0.41) | 5 (0.5) |
15 | Zaragoza | 13 | 32 | 0.98 (0.49) | 1.56 (0.49) | 3.54 (0.68) | 8 (0.8) |
16 | Almería | 16 | 22 | 1.21 (0.61) | 1.19 (0.38) | 2.14 (0.41) | 2 (0.2) |
17 | Zamora | 11 | 26 | 0.98 (0.49) | 1.62 (0.51) | 3.18 (0.61) | 2 (0.2) |
18 | Vitoria-Gasteiz | 11 | 38 | 1.00 (0.50) | 1.69 (0.53) | 2.83 (0.54) | 9 (0.9) |
19 | Segovia | 11 | 23 | 0.93 (0.47) | 1.42 (0.45) | 2.59 (0.50) | 1 (0.1) |
20 | Murcia | 10 | 41 | 1.15 (0.57) | 1.70 (0.54) | 2.73 (0.52) | 8 (0.8) |
21 | Pontevedra | 10 | 28 | 0.95 (0.48) | 1.52 (0.48) | 2.70 (0.52) | 2 (0.2) |
22 | Málaga | 9 | 46 | 0.90 (0.45) | 1.62 (0.51) | 2.92 (0.56) | 9 (0.9) |
23 | Lleida | 8 | 41 | 1.01 (0.50) | 1.44 (0.46) | 2.40 (0.46) | 7 (0.7) |
24 | Huesca | 8 | 25 | 1.11 (0.55) | 1.27 (0.40) | 1.59 (0.31) | 0 (0.0) |
25 | Santa Cruz de Tenerife | 6 | 36 | 0.68 (0.34) | 2.00 (0.63) | 1.94 (0.37) | 1 (0.1) |
26 | Palencia | 6 | 46 | 0.87 (0.43) | 1.58 (0.50) | 2.65 (0.51) | 3 (0.3) |
27 | Ourense | 5 | 58 | 0.86 (0.43) | 1.50 (0.47) | 2.28 (0.44) | 5 (0.5) |
28 | Alicante/Alacant | 4 | 54 | 0.83 (0.42) | 1.19 (0.38) | 2.81 (0.54) | 2 (0.2) |
29 | Valladolid | 4 | 87 | 0.86 (0.43) | 1.66 (0.52) | 2.74 (0.53) | 8 (0.8 |
30 | Huelva | 4 | 75 | 0.97 (0.49) | 2.06 (0.65) | 2.75 (0.53) | 1 (0.1) |
31 | Granada | 3 | 97 | 0.78 (0.39) | 1.71 (0.54) | 2.48 (0.48) | 8 (0.8) |
32 | Oviedo | 3 | 56 | 0.70 (0.35) | 1.74 (0.55) | 0.78 (0.15) | 2 (0.2) |
33 | Burgos | 3 | 105 | 0.92 (0.46) | 0.83 (0.26) | 2.49 (0.48) | 7 (0.7) |
34 | Las Palmas de Gran Canaria | 2 | 91 | 0.76 (0.38) | 1.22 (0.39) | 2.52 (0.48) | 1 (0.1) |
35 | Sevilla | 2 | 158 | 0.69 (0.34) | 1.62 (0.51) | 3.46 (0.67) | 8 (0.8) |
36 | Girona | 2 | 97 | 0.80 (0.40) | 1.66 (0.52) | 1.55 (0.30) | 2 (0.2) |
37 | Tarragona | 2 | 133 | 0.91 (0.46) | 1.72 (0.54) | 2.49 (0.48) | 3 (0.3) |
38 | Logroño | 2 | 126 | 1.02 (0.51) | 1.68 (0.53) | 2.67 (0.51) | 0 (0.0) |
39 | Madrid | 2 | 166 | 0.66 (0.33) | 1.47 (0.46) | 2.79 (0.54) | 6 (0.6) |
40 | Donostia/San Sebastián | 1 | 168 | 0.63 (0.31) | 1.43 (0.45) | 1.81 (0.35) | 8 (0.8) |
41 | Castellón de la Plana/Castelló de la Plana | 1 | 139 | 1.05 (0.53) | 1.32 (0.42) | 2.21 (0.42) | 2 (0.2) |
42 | León | 1 | 180 | 0.76 (0.38) | 1.88 (0.59) | 2.25 (0.43) | 6 (0.6) |
43 | Valencia | 1 | 195 | 0.82 (0.41) | 2.10 (0.66) | 3.21 (0.62) | 1 (0.1) |
44 | Salamanca | 1 | 225 | 0.90 (0.45) | 1.05 (0.33) | 2.64 (0.51) | 5 (0.5) |
45 | Santader | 1 | 261 | 0.73 (0.37) | 1.58 (0.50) | 0.31 (0.06) | 7 (0.7) |
46 | A Coruña | 0 | 308 | 0.79 (0.39) | 0.94 (0.30) | 2.06 (0.39) | 5 (0.5) |
47 | Pamplona/Iruña | 0 | 441 | 0.69 (0.34) | 1.61 (0.51) | 2.93 (0.56) | 8 (0.8) |
48 | Barcelona | 0 | 617 | 0.68 (0.34) | 1.56 (0.49) | 2.99 (0.57) | 8 (0.8) |
49 | Bilbao | 0 | 526 | 0.71 (0.36) | 1.62 (0.51) | 1.43 (0.27) | 7 (0.7) |
50 | Cádiz | 0 | 429 | 0.70 (0.35) | 1.79 (0.56) | 0.00 (0.00) | 2 (0.2) |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Suárez, M.; Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Benayas, J.; Tilbury, D. Towards an Urban Resilience Index: A Case Study in 50 Spanish Cities. Sustainability 2016, 8, 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080774
Suárez M, Gómez-Baggethun E, Benayas J, Tilbury D. Towards an Urban Resilience Index: A Case Study in 50 Spanish Cities. Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):774. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080774
Chicago/Turabian StyleSuárez, Marta, Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Javier Benayas, and Daniella Tilbury. 2016. "Towards an Urban Resilience Index: A Case Study in 50 Spanish Cities" Sustainability 8, no. 8: 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080774