Overcoming Resistance Mechanisms to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Leveraging the Anti-Tumor Immune Response
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. T Cell-Mediated Immunity
3. Mechanisms of ICI Resistance
3.1. Accessing the TME
3.2. Initiating the Anti-Tumor Immune Response
3.3. Potentiating the Anti-Tumor Immune Response
3.4. Sustaining the Anti-Tumor Immune Response
3.5. Other Modifiers of the Response to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
4. Strategies to Overcome Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Resistance
4.1. Enhancing T Cell Priming/Tumor Immunogenicity
4.2. Improving the Immunosuppressive Microenvironment
4.3. Reversing T Cell Exhaustion
4.4. Combining ICIs with Small Molecule Inhibitors
4.5. Addressing Other Modifiers of Response to ICIs
5. Conclusions and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drug Name | Target |
---|---|
Cemiplimab | PD-1 |
Dostarlimab | PD-1 |
Nivolumab | PD-1 |
Pembrolizumab | PD-1 |
Retifanlimab | PD-1 |
Spartalizumab | PD-1 |
Tislelizumab | PD-1 |
Zimberelimab | PD-1 |
Atezolizumab | PD-L1 |
Avelumab | PD-L1 |
Durvalumab | PD-L1 |
Ipilimumab | CTLA-4 |
Tremelimumab | CTLA-4 |
Fianlimab | LAG3 |
Relatlimab | LAG3 |
Cobolimab | TIM-3 |
Sabatolimab | TIM-3 |
Domvanalimab | TIGIT |
Ociperlimab | TIGIT |
Tiragolumab | TIGIT |
Vibostolimab | TIGIT |
Enoblituzumab | B7-H3 |
Epacadostat | IDO |
Cadonilimab | Bispecific- PD-1 and CTLA-4 |
Tebotelimab | Bispecific- PD-1 and LAG3 |
Feladilimab | Costimulatory ICOS receptor agonist |
Evorpacept | CD47 inhibitor fused to inactive IgG Fc |
Utomilumab | Phae IB/III trial CD-137 agonist |
Eftilagimod alpha | Solubilized LAG3 and MHC class II agonist |
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Coschi, C.H.; Juergens, R.A. Overcoming Resistance Mechanisms to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Leveraging the Anti-Tumor Immune Response. Curr. Oncol. 2024, 31, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol31010001
Coschi CH, Juergens RA. Overcoming Resistance Mechanisms to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Leveraging the Anti-Tumor Immune Response. Current Oncology. 2024; 31(1):1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol31010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleCoschi, Courtney H., and Rosalyn A. Juergens. 2024. "Overcoming Resistance Mechanisms to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Leveraging the Anti-Tumor Immune Response" Current Oncology 31, no. 1: 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol31010001