Geographical Variation in Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Stool, Cow-Dung and Drinking Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Study Settings
Geographical regions and environmental variables | Malkangiri (Non-coastal) | Puri (Coastal) |
---|---|---|
Physical components | ||
Temperature (Maximum, Minimum) | 47 °C, 11 °C | 36 °C, 13 °C |
Average yearly rainfall in mm | 1465 | 1586 |
Natural components | ||
Height from the sea level in metres | 196 | 6 |
Forest cover in percentage | 38 | 3 |
Social components | ||
Total population in million | 0.61 | 1.69 |
Population Density per Sq. Km | 106 | 488 |
Literacy Rate in percentage | 49 | 85 |
2.2. Sampling and Data Collection
2.3. Isolation and Identification of E. coli
2.4. Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing
2.5. Determination of Ciprofloxacin Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Information on Households and Isolation Rate of E. coli
Information on households | NCE (N = 230), n (%) | CE (N = 187), n (%) |
---|---|---|
Socioeconomic status | ||
Lower | 197 (86) | 148 (79) |
Upper | 33 (14) | 39 (21) |
Education of family head | ||
Illiterate | 37 (16) | 18 (10) |
Primary (1–5 years) | 101 (44) | 77 (41) |
Secondary (6–12 years) | 81 (35) | 76 (41) |
Higher (more than 12 years) | 11 (5) | 16 (8) |
Drinking water sources | ||
Tube well | 192 (83) | 169 (90) |
Water supply system | 28 (12) | 5 (3) |
Well | 4 (2) | 13 (7) |
Pond | 6 (3) | 0 |
Defecation | ||
Latrine | 26 (11) | 30 (16) |
Open-air | 204 (89) | 157 (84) |
Age of child | ||
3 to 5 years | 105 (46) | 74 (40) |
6 to 9 years | 125 (54) | 113 (60) |
Sex of child | ||
Boy | 128 (56) | 102 (55) |
Girl | 102 (44) | 85 (45) |
Antibiotic use in the child, last year | ||
Yes | 175 (76) | 175 (94) |
No | 3 (1) | 6 (3) |
Not known | 52 (22) | 6 (3) |
Antibiotic use in the cow, last year | ||
Yes | 11 (5) | 7 (4) |
No | 219 (95) | 180 (96) |
Isolation rate of E. coli | ||
Children’s stools | 139 (60) | 138 (74) |
Cow-dung | 140 (61) | 128 (68) |
Drinking water | 97 (42) | 54 (29) |
3.2. Antibiotic Resistance Pattern
Antibiotics | Resistance in E. coli isolates from various sources | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Children’s stool, n (%) | Cow-dung, n (%) | Drinking water, n (%) | |||||||
NCE N = 139 | CE N = 138 | P | NCE N = 140 | CE N = 128 | P | NCE N = 97 | CE N = 54 | P | |
Tetracycline | 76 (55) | 70 (51) | 0.51 | 69 (49) | 46 (36) | 0.027 | 59 (61) | 16 (30) | <0.001 |
Ampicillin/Sulbactam | 69 (50) | 55 (40) | 0.102 | 71 (51) | 35 (27) | <0.001 | 46 (47) | 16 (30) | 0.033 |
Cefuroxime (2nd) | 88 (63) | 70 (51) | 0.034 | 89 (64) | 48 (37) | <0.001 | 63 (65) | 22 (41) | 0.004 |
Cefotaxime (3rd) | 90 (65) | 68 (49) | 0.009 | 82 (59) | 39 (30) | <0.001 | 72 (74) | 23 (43) | <0.001 |
Cefixime (3rd) | 95 (68) | 72 (52) | 0.006 | 86 (61) | 49 (38) | <0.001 | 52 (54) | 16 (30) | 0.005 |
Cotrimoxazole | 79 (57) | 52 (38) | 0.001 | 69 (49) | 37 (29) | 0.001 | 51 (53) | 22 (41) | 0.163 |
Amikacin | 39 (28) | 52 (38) | 0.088 | 58 (41) | 42 (33) | 0.145 | 25 (26) | 9 (17) | 0.199 |
Ciprofloxacin | 60 (43) | 56 (41) | 0.663 | 43 (31) | 33 (26) | 0.371 | 40 (41) | 11 (20) | 0.009 |
Norfloxacin | 70 (50) | 59 (43) | 0.204 | 71 (51) | 43 (34) | 0.005 | 47 (48) | 18 (33) | 0.072 |
Nalidixic acid | 92 (66) | 71 (51) | 0.013 | 78 (56) | 48 (37) | 0.003 | 63 (65) | 20 (37) | 0.001 |
Antibiotics | Penicillin (B) | Cephalosporin (C) (cefotaxime, cefixime) | Cotrimoxazole (D) | Aminoglycoside (E) | Fluoroquinolone (F) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NCE | CE | NCE | CE | NCE | CE | NCE | CE | NCE | CE | |
4A. Prevalence of resistance in children’s stool n (%) | ||||||||||
Tetracycline (A) | 35 (25) | 34 (25) | 68 (49) | 52 (38) | 44 (32) | 30 (22) | 21 (15) | 33 (24) | 49 (35) | 41 (28) |
Penicillin (B) | 60 (43) | 50 (36) | 49 (35) ** | 28 (20) | 23 (17) | 20 (14) | 51 (37) | 51 (37) | ||
Cephalosporin (C) | 70 (50) ** | 42 (30) | 29 (21) | 38 (28) | 74 (53) | 62 (45) | ||||
Cotrimoxazole (D) | 25 (18) | 18 (13) | 58 (42) * | 41 (30) | ||||||
Aminoglycoside (E) | 24 (17) | 29 (21) | ||||||||
AB | 32 (23) | 31 (22) | 21 (15) | 18 (13) | 9 (6) | 11 (8) | 26 (19) | 30 (22) | ||
ABC | 21 (15) | 17 (12) | 9 (6) | 11 (8) | 25 (18) | 28 (20) | ||||
ABCD | 5 (4) | 6 (4) | 17 (12) | 16 (12) | ||||||
ABCDE | 4 (3) | 6 (4) | ||||||||
4B. Prevalence of resistance in cow-dung n (%) | ||||||||||
Tetracycline (A) | 35 (25) ** | 16 (13) | 58 (41) ** | 29 (23) | 36 (26) * | 17 (13) | 28 (20) | 21 (16) | 44 (31) ** | 22 (17) |
Penicillin (B) | 64 (46) *** | 26 (20) | 50 (36) ** | 22 (17) | 31 (22) ** | 12 (9) | 58 (41) ** | 31 (24) | ||
Cephalosporin (C) | 61 (44) *** | 29 (23) | 43 (31) | 26 (20) | 73 (52) ** | 40 (31) | ||||
Cotrimoxazole (D) | 30 (21) | 17 (13) | 53 (38) ** | 30 (23) | ||||||
Aminoglycoside (E) | 34 (24) ** | 17 (13) | ||||||||
AB | 33 (24) * | 15 (12) | 22 (16) | 11 (9) | 14 (10) | 6 (5) | 28 (20) * | 14 (11) | ||
ABC | 20 (14) | 10 (8) | 12 (9) | 5 (4) | 26 (19) | 14 (11) | ||||
ABCD | 6 (4) | 5 (4) | 14 (10) | 10 (8) | ||||||
ABCDE | 3 (2) | 5 (4) | ||||||||
4C. Prevalence of resistance in drinking water n (%) | ||||||||||
Tetracycline (A) | 29 (30) * | 8 (15) | 56 (58) *** | 13 (24) | 31 (32) * | 9 (17) | 11 (11) | 4 (7) | 38 (39) ** | 9 (17) |
Penicillin (B) | 38 (39) * | 11 (20) | 37 (38) * | 11 (20) | 18 (19) ** | 1 (2) | 34 (35) * | 10 (19) | ||
Cephalosporin (C) | 40 (41) | 16 (30) | 17 (18) | 4 (8) | 55 (57) ** | 17 (31) | ||||
Cotrimoxazole (D) | 17 (18) * | 2 (4) | 37 (38) * | 11 (20) | ||||||
Aminoglycoside (E) | 17 (18) * | 2 (4) | ||||||||
AB | 28 (29) | 8 (15) | 22 (23) * | 5 (9) | 6 (6) | 1 (2) | 21 (22) | 6 (11) | ||
ABC | 21 (22) | 5 (9) | 5 (5) | 1 (2) | 20 (21) | 6 (11) | ||||
ABCD | 2 (2) | 0 | 16 (16) | 4 (7) | ||||||
ABCDE | 2 (2) | 0 |
3.3. Association of Resistance, Co-Resistance and Multi-Resistance
3.4. Ciprofloxacin MIC Determination
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
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Sahoo, K.C.; Tamhankar, A.J.; Sahoo, S.; Sahu, P.S.; Klintz, S.R.; Lundborg, C.S. Geographical Variation in Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Stool, Cow-Dung and Drinking Water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 746-759. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030746
Sahoo KC, Tamhankar AJ, Sahoo S, Sahu PS, Klintz SR, Lundborg CS. Geographical Variation in Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Stool, Cow-Dung and Drinking Water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(3):746-759. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030746
Chicago/Turabian StyleSahoo, Krushna Chandra, Ashok J. Tamhankar, Soumyakanta Sahoo, Priyadarshi Soumyaranjan Sahu, Senia Rosales Klintz, and Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg. 2012. "Geographical Variation in Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates from Stool, Cow-Dung and Drinking Water" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9, no. 3: 746-759. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9030746