Do Protected Areas Contribute to Health and Well-Being? A Cross-Cultural Comparison
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Cultural differences occur regarding motives to visit PAs.
- The benefits associated with contact with nature vary between the three countries. Consequently, cultural differences exist regarding the perceived capacity for PAs to contribute to personal well-being, i.e., the salutogenic effect of a visit to a PA.
- Activities carried out in good or bad health conditions differ between countries. The likelihood of visiting a PA depends on health conditions and differs between countries.
2. Background
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Design
3.2. Description of the Sample
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Motives to Visit PAs
4.2. Benefits Associated with Contact with Nature in PAs
4.3. Perceived Capacity to Contribute to Personal Well-Being through Reduction of Symptoms of Bad Health Conditions
4.4. Likelihood of Visiting a PA in Good or Bad Health Conditions
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions and Outlook
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study Area | Designation as PA (year) | Size (ha) | Distance to Urban Area(s), ca. (km) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Austria | Nationalpark Donau Auen | 1996 | 9300 | 100 |
Naturpark Oetscher Tormauren | 1970 | 17,000 | 200 | |
Biosphere reserve Lungau | 2012 | 15,000 | 300 | |
Italy | Parco della Val Grande | 1992 | 15,000 | 100 |
Parco naturale dell’Alpe Veglia e dell’Alpe Devero | 1995 | 9000 | 200 | |
Riserva della Biosfera “Valle del Ticino” | 1974 | 92,000 | 50 | |
Poland | National Park Roztocze | 1974 | 8482 | 130 |
Polesie National Park | 1990 | 9762 | 50 | |
Janowskie Forests Landscape Park | 1984 | 40,000 | 80 |
Total Sample | Male | Female | |
---|---|---|---|
Austria | count | 226 | 250 |
% within country | 47.4 | 52.4 | |
Italy | count | 228 | 229 |
% within country | 49.9 | 50.1 | |
Poland | count | 218 | 241 |
% within country | 46.8 | 52.5 |
Under Which Circumstances Do You Visit This Park? (Likert Scale Coding: 1—Very Likely, 2—Likely, 3—Neutral, 4—Not Likely, 5—Not Likely at All) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Mean | Std. Deviation | Std. Error | ||||
Circumstances for park visit—when I need tranquility | 0.000 | Austria | 476 | 2.25 | 1.189 | 0.054 | |
Italy | 457 | 1.71 | 0.907 | 0.042 | |||
Poland | 459 | 1.83 | 0.949 | 0.044 | |||
Total | 1392 | 1.94 | 1.050 | 0.028 | |||
Circumstances for park visit—when I’m feeling well | 0.000 | Austria | 476 | 2.07 | 0.965 | 0.044 | |
Italy | 457 | 1.86 | 0.863 | 0.040 | |||
Poland | 459 | 1.92 | 0.830 | 0.039 | |||
Total | 1392 | 1.95 | 0.893 | 0.024 | |||
Circumstances for park visit—when I’m feeling bad (emotionally stressed, or depressed) | 0.068 | Austria | 476 | 2.79 | 1.267 | 0.058 | |
Italy | 457 | 2.56 | 1.254 | 0.059 | |||
Poland | 459 | 2.58 | 1.142 | 0.053 | |||
Total | 1392 | 2.65 | 1.226 | 0.033 | |||
Circumstances for park visit—when I want to escape from the city | 0.000 | Austria | 476 | 2.15 | 1.245 | 0.057 | |
Italy | 457 | 1.83 | 1.098 | 0.051 | |||
Poland | 459 | 2.38 | 1.328 | 0.062 | |||
Total | 1392 | 2.12 | 1.247 | 0.033 |
Reduction of Symptoms (ANOVA) | Sum of Squares | F | Sig. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Irritability | Between Groups | 27.673 | 25.115 | 0.000 |
Lack of ability to concentrate | Between Groups | 3462 | 2343 | 0.096 |
Insomnia | Between Groups | 3416 | 1933 | 0.145 |
Muscular tension | Between Groups | 120.390 | 63.640 | 0.000 |
Pain | Between Groups | 85.993 | 43.313 | 0.000 |
General anxiety | Between Groups | 27.731 | 17.508 | 0.000 |
Depression | Between Groups | 24.006 | 12.431 | 0.000 |
Short-term memory | Between Groups | 43.930 | 18.126 | 0.000 |
What Do You Do When You Are Feeling Physically and Mentally Well (Happy—No Stress—Relaxed)? | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Mean | Std. Deviation | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval for Mean | ||||
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | |||||||
physically and mentally well—Sleep | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.79 | 0.953 | 0.044 | 2.71 | 2.88 |
Italy | 457 | 2.67 | 0.951 | 0.045 | 2.58 | 2.76 | ||
Poland | 456 | 2.85 | 1.149 | 0.054 | 2.75 | 2.96 | ||
Total | 1388 | 2.77 | 1.023 | 0.027 | 2.72 | 2.83 | ||
physically and mentally well—Read a book | 0.041 | Austria | 475 | 2.32 | 0.862 | 0.040 | 2.25 | 2.40 |
Italy | 457 | 2.06 | 0.926 | 0.043 | 1.97 | 2.14 | ||
Poland | 458 | 2.53 | 0.910 | 0.043 | 2.44 | 2.61 | ||
Total | 1390 | 2.30 | 0.919 | 0.025 | 2.26 | 2.35 | ||
physically and mentally well—Watch TV | 0.137 | Austria | 474 | 2.60 | 0.879 | 0.040 | 2.52 | 2.68 |
Italy | 457 | 2.47 | 0.920 | 0.043 | 2.39 | 2.56 | ||
Poland | 458 | 2.77 | 0.907 | 0.042 | 2.68 | 2.85 | ||
Total | 1389 | 2.61 | 0.909 | 0.024 | 2.57 | 2.66 | ||
physically and mentally well—Sports | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 1.78 | 0.753 | 0.035 | 1.72 | 1.85 |
Italy | 456 | 1.77 | 0.789 | 0.037 | 1.69 | 1.84 | ||
Poland | 458 | 2.22 | 0.902 | 0.042 | 2.13 | 2.30 | ||
Total | 1389 | 1.92 | 0.842 | 0.023 | 1.88 | 1.97 | ||
physically and mentally well—Go to a park | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.07 | 0.876 | 0.040 | 1.99 | 2.15 |
Italy | 457 | 1.81 | 0.790 | 0.037 | 1.74 | 1.88 | ||
Poland | 454 | 2.28 | 0.939 | 0.044 | 2.19 | 2.36 | ||
Total | 1386 | 2.05 | 0.890 | 0.024 | 2.01 | 2.10 | ||
physically and mentally well—Go to a protected area | 0.000 | Austria | 474 | 2.11 | 0.839 | 0.039 | 2.04 | 2.19 |
Italy | 457 | 2.06 | 0.873 | 0.041 | 1.98 | 2.14 | ||
Poland | 457 | 2.72 | 0.943 | 0.044 | 2.64 | 2.81 | ||
Total | 1388 | 2.30 | 0.934 | 0.025 | 2.25 | 2.34 | ||
physically and mentally well—Take a walk in the city | 0.000 | Austria | 474 | 2.53 | 0.929 | 0.043 | 2.45 | 2.61 |
Italy | 457 | 2.16 | 0.881 | 0.041 | 2.07 | 2.24 | ||
Poland | 452 | 2.54 | 1.025 | 0.048 | 2.45 | 2.64 | ||
Total | 1383 | 2.41 | 0.963 | 0.026 | 2.36 | 2.46 | ||
physically and mentally well—Go shopping | 0.009 | Austria | 475 | 2.46 | 0.946 | 0.043 | 2.37 | 2.54 |
Italy | 457 | 2.26 | 0.951 | 0.044 | 2.17 | 2.35 | ||
Poland | 456 | 2.46 | 1.030 | 0.048 | 2.36 | 2.55 | ||
Total | 1388 | 2.39 | 0.980 | 0.026 | 2.34 | 2.44 | ||
physically and mentally well—Listen to music | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 1.89 | 0.845 | 0.039 | 1.82 | 1.97 |
Italy | 457 | 1.84 | 0.769 | 0.036 | 1.77 | 1.91 | ||
Poland | 458 | 2.18 | 0.980 | 0.046 | 2.09 | 2.27 | ||
Total | 1390 | 1.97 | 0.881 | 0.024 | 1.92 | 2.02 |
What Do You Do When You Are Feeling Physically Sick (Headache-Backache)/Mentally Sick (Stress—Fatigue)? | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Mean | Std. Deviation | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval for Mean | ||||
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | |||||||
physically sick—Sleep | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 1.75 | 0.800 | 0.037 | 1.68 | 1.82 |
Italy | 457 | 1.72 | 0.824 | 0.039 | 1.65 | 1.80 | ||
Poland | 459 | 1.87 | 1.024 | 0.048 | 1.78 | 1.97 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.78 | 0.889 | 0.024 | 1.74 | 1.83 | ||
mentally sick—Sleep | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 1.92 | 0.855 | 0.039 | 1.85 | 2.00 |
Italy | 457 | 1.86 | 0.879 | 0.041 | 1.77 | 1.94 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.27 | 1.137 | 0.030 | 1.21 | 1.33 | ||
physically sick—Read a book | 0.104 | Austria | 475 | 2.73 | 0.998 | 0.046 | 2.64 | 2.82 |
Italy | 457 | 2.41 | 0.949 | 0.044 | 2.33 | 2.50 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.68 | 0.925 | 0.043 | 2.60 | 2.77 | ||
Total | 1391 | 2.61 | 0.968 | 0.026 | 2.56 | 2.66 | ||
mentally sick—Read a book | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.67 | 1.012 | 0.046 | 2.58 | 2.76 |
Italy | 457 | 2.40 | 0.891 | 0.042 | 2.32 | 2.48 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.70 | 1.430 | 0.038 | 1.62 | 1.78 | ||
physically sick—Watch TV | 0.000 | Austria | 474 | 2.47 | 1.007 | 0.046 | 2.38 | 2.56 |
Italy | 456 | 2.39 | 0.,950 | 0.044 | 2.30 | 2.48 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.47 | 0.885 | 0.041 | 2.39 | 2.56 | ||
Total | 1389 | 2.45 | 0.949 | 0.025 | 2.40 | 2.50 | ||
mentally sick—Watch TV | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.40 | 0.974 | 0.045 | 2.31 | 2.49 |
Italy | 457 | 2.42 | 0.936 | 0.044 | 2.33 | 2.51 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.61 | 1.376 | 0.037 | 1.54 | 1.69 | ||
physically sick—Sports | 0.000 | Austria | 474 | 2.60 | 1.038 | 0.048 | 2.51 | 2.69 |
Italy | 457 | 2.33 | 0.919 | 0.043 | 2.25 | 2.42 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.,66 | 0.982 | 0.046 | 2.57 | 2.75 | ||
Total | 1390 | 2.53 | 0.991 | 0.027 | 2.48 | 2.58 | ||
mentally sick—Sports | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.26 | 0.972 | 0.045 | 2.18 | 2.35 |
Italy | 457 | 2.21 | 0.892 | 0.042 | 2.13 | 2.30 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.50 | 1.301 | .035 | 1.43 | 1.57 | ||
physically sick—Go to a park | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.52 | 0.949 | 0.044 | 2.43 | 2.60 |
Italy | 457 | 2.18 | 0.863 | 0.040 | 2.10 | 2.26 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.59 | 0.871 | 0.041 | 2.51 | 2.67 | ||
Total | 1391 | 2.43 | 0.912 | 0.024 | 2.38 | 2.48 | ||
mentally sick—Go to a park | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.27 | 0.893 | 0.041 | 2.19 | 2.35 |
Italy | 457 | 2.17 | 0.837 | 0.039 | 2.09 | 2.24 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.49 | 1.263 | 0.034 | 1.42 | 1.55 | ||
physically sick—Go to a protected area | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.60 | 0.987 | 0.045 | 2.51 | 2.69 |
Italy | 457 | 2.25 | 0.789 | 0.037 | 2.18 | 2.32 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.97 | 0.964 | 0.045 | 2.88 | 3.05 | ||
Total | 1391 | 2.61 | 0.963 | 0.026 | 2.56 | 2.66 | ||
mentally sick—Go to a protected area | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.40 | 0.946 | 0.043 | 2.32 | 2.49 |
Italy | 457 | 2.24 | 0.762 | 0.036 | 2.17 | 2.31 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.55 | 1.301 | .035 | 1.49 | 1.62 | ||
physically sick—Take a walk in the city | 0.281 | Austria | 474 | 2.95 | 0.959 | 0.,044 | 2.87 | 3.04 |
Italy | 457 | 2.52 | 0.953 | 0.045 | 2.43 | 2.61 | ||
Poland | 459 | 3.02 | 1.038 | 0.048 | 2.93 | 3.12 | ||
Total | 1390 | 2.83 | 1.008 | 0.027 | 2.78 | 2.89 | ||
mentally sick—Take a walk in the city | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.85 | 0.946 | 0.043 | 2.77 | 2.94 |
Italy | 457 | 2.52 | 0.948 | 0.044 | 2.43 | 2.61 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.80 | 1.489 | 0.040 | 1.72 | 1.88 | ||
physically sick—Go shopping | 0.000 | Austria | 474 | 3.12 | 0.954 | 0.044 | 3.03 | 3.20 |
Italy | 457 | 2.74 | 0.960 | 0.045 | 2.65 | 2.83 | ||
Poland | 459 | 3.03 | 0.948 | 0.044 | 2.94 | 3.12 | ||
Total | 1390 | 2.96 | 0.967 | 0.026 | 2.91 | 3.01 | ||
mentally sick—Go shopping | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 3.,01 | 0.974 | 0.045 | 2.92 | 3.10 |
Italy | 457 | 2.70 | 0.960 | 0.045 | 2.61 | 2.79 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.92 | 1.566 | 0.042 | 1.83 | 2.00 | ||
physically sick—Listen to music | 0.013 | Austria | 475 | 2.30 | 0.979 | 0.045 | 2.21 | 2.39 |
Italy | 457 | 2.12 | 0.909 | 0.043 | 2.03 | 2.20 | ||
Poland | 459 | 2.18 | 0.967 | 0.045 | 2.09 | 2.27 | ||
Total | 1391 | 2.20 | 0.955 | 0.026 | 2.15 | 2.25 | ||
mentally sick—Listen to music | 0.000 | Austria | 475 | 2.13 | 0.928 | 0.043 | 2.05 | 2.21 |
Italy | 457 | 2.03 | 0.865 | 0.040 | 1.95 | 2.11 | ||
Poland | 459 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Total | 1391 | 1.39 | 1.225 | 0.033 | 1.33 | 1.46 |
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Share and Cite
Jiricka-Pürrer, A.; Tadini, V.; Salak, B.; Taczanowska, K.; Tucki, A.; Senes, G. Do Protected Areas Contribute to Health and Well-Being? A Cross-Cultural Comparison. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071172
Jiricka-Pürrer A, Tadini V, Salak B, Taczanowska K, Tucki A, Senes G. Do Protected Areas Contribute to Health and Well-Being? A Cross-Cultural Comparison. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(7):1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071172
Chicago/Turabian StyleJiricka-Pürrer, Alexandra, Valeria Tadini, Boris Salak, Karolina Taczanowska, Andrzej Tucki, and Giulio Senes. 2019. "Do Protected Areas Contribute to Health and Well-Being? A Cross-Cultural Comparison" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 7: 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071172