The Impact of Particulate Matter on Outdoor Activity and Mental Health: A Matching Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Influence of Particulate Matter on Outdoor Activity and Mental Health
2.1. Particulate Matter and Outdoor Activity
2.2. Particulate Matter and Mental Health
3. Method
3.1. Data Source and Descriptions
3.2. Dependent Variables: Mental Health and Outdoor Walking Activity
3.3. Exposure Levels of High PM10
3.4. Statistical Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Matching Variables of the Study Population and the PM10 Exposure Level
4.2. Assessment of Balance with Multiple Exposure Groups
4.3. Effects on Mental Health and Outdoor Walking Activity
4.4. Robustness Checks
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Definition | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables | Number of walking days | Number of days when he or she walked at least 10 minutes in the past week (from 0 to 7 days, including for commuting) | |
Mental stress | The level of stress in daily life. (I feel very much a lot:1, I feel a lot:2, I feel a little:3, I hardly feel it:4) | ||
Independent variables | Exposure level of PM | Six group indicators (1-6) divided by percent quintiles based on number of hours when PM10 concentration is higher than 80 μg/m3 | |
Matching variables | Physical factors | Age | Age based on resident identification number (19–110 years old) |
Sex | Male:1, Female:2 | ||
Height | The value of height in cm | ||
Weight | The value of weight in kg | ||
Ability to exercise | Exercise ability (1: I do not mind walking; 2: I have a little trouble walking; 3: I should be lying all day) | ||
Habitual factors | Number of days of intense physical activity | The number of days when he or she had at least 10 minutes of intense physical activity in the past week (from 0 to 7 days, such as running, hiking and cycling) | |
Number of days of eating breakfast | Number of days when he or she had a breakfast in the past week (from 0 to 7 days) | ||
Average time of sleeping | Average time of sleeping per day (hour) | ||
Drinking or not up to now | Experience of drinking while living so far (Yes: 1, No: 0) | ||
Current drinking habit | Experience of drinking last one year (Yes: 1, No: 0) | ||
Socio-economic factors | Basic living support | Receiving basic living income or not (Yes: 1, Not now, but past recipients:2, No:3) | |
Living together with dementia patients | Whether household is currently living with a dementia patient or not (Yes:1, No:0) | ||
Number of household members | Number of household members currently living together | ||
Family income | Average monthly income of household including wages, real estate income, interest, government supports in recent years (ask on 8 point scale) | ||
Economic activity | Whether he or she worked more than one hour with salary or worked for more than 18 hours as unpaid family workers in the past week (Yes:1, No:0) | ||
Owned car or not | Whether driving a car (Yes:1, No:0) | ||
Psychological factors | Perceived health condition | Think about her or his health (very good: 1, Good: 2, Usually: 3, Poor: 4, Very bad: 5) |
Characteristics | Number of Subjects | Exposure Level of High PM10 Concentration | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Quintile 1 | Quintile 2 | Quintile 3 | Quintile 4 | Quintile 5 | Quintile 6 | |||
(0–177) | (0–3) | (4–12) | (13–20) | (21–30) | (31–53) | (60–177) | |||
Total | 93,694 | 100.0 (%) | 15.4 | 16.1 | 17.9 | 20.2 | 14.2 | 16.1 | |
14,451 | 15,073 | 16,783 | 18,918 | 13,350 | 15,119 | ||||
Age | 19–25 | 8864 | 9.5 | 8.4 | 9.1 | 9.9 | 9.8 | 9.7 | 9.7 |
26–35 | 14,677 | 15.7 | 13.3 | 14.3 | 17.0 | 16.4 | 16.2 | 16.4 | |
36–45 | 19,200 | 20.5 | 19.8 | 19.8 | 20.4 | 20.6 | 20.8 | 21.6 | |
46–55 | 20,057 | 21.4 | 22.5 | 20.9 | 20.2 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 22.0 | |
56–65 | 15,968 | 17.0 | 17.9 | 18.1 | 17.4 | 16.2 | 17.4 | 15.6 | |
66–93 | 14,928 | 15.9 | 18.2 | 17.8 | 15.1 | 15.5 | 14.4 | 14.7 | |
Sex | Male | 47,211 | 50.4 | 51.9 | 49.4 | 50.3 | 49.9 | 50.8 | 50.2 |
Female | 46,483 | 49.6 | 48.1 | 50.6 | 49.7 | 50.1 | 49.2 | 49.8 | |
Family Income | <500,000 won | 4055 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 4.7 | 3.6 | 3.9 | 4.8 | 3.7 |
500,000–1,000,000 | 8366 | 8.9 | 10.6 | 10.8 | 7.9 | 7.7 | 8.8 | 8.3 | |
1,000,000–2,000,000 | 13,988 | 14.9 | 16.9 | 16.7 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 14.4 | 13.7 | |
2,000,000–3,000,000 | 18,012 | 19.2 | 19.2 | 20.1 | 19.3 | 18.2 | 20.1 | 18.8 | |
3,000,000–4,000,000 | 17,676 | 18.9 | 18.0 | 17.8 | 20.4 | 18.1 | 18.7 | 20.2 | |
4,000,000–5,000,000 | 12,513 | 13.4 | 12.4 | 12.9 | 14.7 | 13.0 | 12.9 | 14.2 | |
5,000,000–6,000,000 | 7,707 | 8.2 | 6.9 | 7.8 | 8.0 | 8.8 | 8.3 | 9.4 | |
>6,000,000 won | 11,377 | 12.1 | 10.4 | 9.2 | 11.7 | 16.6 | 12.0 | 11.8 | |
Alcohol use (Drinking at least once in a year) | 79,292 | 84.6 | 84.3 | 84.0 | 85.2 | 85.2 | 84.4 | 84.4 | |
Vigorous Exercise (<3 days/week ) | 78,977 | 84.3 | 84.8 | 84.5 | 83.0 | 84.3 | 84.0 | 85.3 | |
Height | ≤150 cm | 4163 | 4.4 | 4.7 | 4.9 | 4.0 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.1 |
≤160 cm | 28,029 | 29.9 | 30.1 | 30.9 | 29.7 | 29.4 | 29.7 | 29.9 | |
≤170 cm | 36,058 | 38.5 | 38.8 | 38.4 | 38.2 | 38.5 | 38.6 | 38.4 | |
≤180 cm | 22,622 | 24.1 | 23.5 | 23.1 | 25.0 | 24.4 | 24.2 | 24.5 | |
>180 cm | 2822 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.0 | 3.2 | |
Weight | ≤50 kg | 11,371 | 12.1 | 11.8 | 12.5 | 12.2 | 12.5 | 11.7 | 12.0 |
≤60 kg | 30,707 | 32.8 | 32.5 | 33.4 | 32.7 | 33.0 | 32.6 | 32.3 | |
≤70 kg | 28,291 | 30.2 | 30.6 | 30.6 | 30.2 | 29.5 | 30.1 | 30.4 | |
≤80 kg | 16,184 | 17.3 | 17.5 | 16.4 | 17.3 | 17.2 | 17.8 | 17.5 | |
>80 kg | 7141 | 7.6 | 7.6 | 7.2 | 7.5 | 7.8 | 7.7 | 7.9 | |
Ability to exercise | I do not mind walking | 83,747 | 89.4 | 88.0 | 87.8 | 90.3 | 90.3 | 89.9 | 89.5 |
I have a little trouble walking | 9650 | 10.3 | 11.7 | 11.8 | 9.4 | 9.4 | 9.7 | 10.1 | |
I should be lying all day | 297 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | |
Number of days of eating breakfast | 0 | 12,745 | 13.6 | 11.6 | 12.6 | 13.5 | 14.2 | 15.2 | 14.5 |
1 | 1842 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 2.3 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.8 | |
2 | 4129 | 4.4 | 3.8 | 4.1 | 4.9 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 4.6 | |
3 | 5446 | 5.8 | 4.9 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 5.8 | 5.7 | 6.6 | |
4 | 3101 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 3.4 | 3.6 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.4 | |
5 | 4060 | 4.3 | 3.7 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 4.4 | 4.5 | |
6 | 1524 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 1.5 | |
7 | 60,847 | 64.9 | 70.2 | 66.3 | 63.2 | 63.7 | 63.7 | 63.2 | |
Average time of sleeping | one hour to 5 hours | 15,610 | 16.7 | 16.0 | 16.7 | 16.8 | 16.8 | 16.9 | 16.7 |
6 hours to 10 hours | 77,932 | 83.2 | 83.8 | 83.2 | 83.0 | 83.0 | 83.0 | 83.1 | |
11 hours to 15 hours | 149 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | |
Basic living support (Yes, or Having in the past, but not now) | 3155 | 3.4 | 4.0 | 3.7 | 3.1 | 2.9 | 3.3 | 3.4 | |
Living together with dementia patient | 749 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.8 | |
Number of household members | One person | 9343 | 10.0 | 10.7 | 10.3 | 9.8 | 9.8 | 10.2 | 9.3 |
Two persons | 27,073 | 28.9 | 32.6 | 30.8 | 28.1 | 27.6 | 27.8 | 26.9 | |
3–4 persons household | 47,570 | 50.8 | 47.0 | 49.4 | 51.7 | 52.0 | 51.0 | 53.1 | |
>4 persons | 9708 | 10.4 | 9.7 | 9.5 | 10.5 | 10.7 | 11.1 | 10.7 | |
Economic activity | 61,558 | 65.7 | 65.4 | 65.3 | 65.1 | 65.0 | 67.1 | 66.6 | |
Having a car | 53,581 | 57.2 | 60.9 | 54.7 | 55.1 | 56.4 | 59.2 | 57.6 | |
Perceived health condition | Very good | 6756 | 7.2 | 6.2 | 6.4 | 7.4 | 8.2 | 7.3 | 7.5 |
Good | 32,491 | 34.7 | 34.1 | 34.6 | 35.8 | 35.5 | 33.8 | 33.8 | |
Moderate | 40,569 | 43.3 | 43.0 | 43.1 | 43.2 | 42.5 | 44.5 | 43.8 | |
Poor | 11,063 | 11.8 | 13.0 | 12.6 | 11.1 | 11.2 | 11.5 | 11.6 | |
Very bad | 2815 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.8 | 3.2 |
Variable | Average Number of Walking Days Per Week | |
---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Deviation | |
Group 2 | 0.5118 *** | 0.0314 |
Group 3 | 0.6312 *** | 0.0302 |
Group 4 | 0.5681 *** | 0.0295 |
Group 5 | 0.34 *** | 0.0326 |
Group 6 | 0.2623 *** | 0.0315 |
Constants | 3.9192 *** | 0.0229 |
Observations | 93,694 |
Variable | Perceived Mental Stress Level (Likert 4 Scale: 1, Strong to 4, Less Likely) | |
---|---|---|
Coefficient | Standard Deviation | |
Group 2 | −0.0224 ** | 0.0086 |
Group 3 | −0.022 ** | 0.0094 |
Group 4 | −0.0425 *** | 0.0082 |
Group 5 | 0.0023 | 0.0089 |
Group 6 | −0.0344 *** | 0.0087 |
Constants | 2.8812 | 0.0061 |
Observations | 93,694 |
Threshold | Hours with > 80 μg/m3 | Hours with > 100 μg/m3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | (1) Perceived Mental Stress Level | (2) Number of Walking Days | (3) Perceived Mental Stress Level | (4) Number of Walking Days |
high PM10 hours | 0.3735 *** | 0.0878 ** | 0.5315 *** | 0.1165 ** |
(0.0420) | (0.0431) | (0.0563) | (0.0579) | |
high PM10 hours^2 | −0.0127 *** | −0.0028 ** | −0.0787 *** | −0.0146 * |
(0.0013) | (0.0014) | (0.0076) | (0.0078) | |
Observations | 93,694 |
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Jung, M.; Cho, D.; Shin, K. The Impact of Particulate Matter on Outdoor Activity and Mental Health: A Matching Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2983. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162983
Jung M, Cho D, Shin K. The Impact of Particulate Matter on Outdoor Activity and Mental Health: A Matching Approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(16):2983. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162983
Chicago/Turabian StyleJung, Miyeon, Daegon Cho, and Kwangsoo Shin. 2019. "The Impact of Particulate Matter on Outdoor Activity and Mental Health: A Matching Approach" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 16: 2983. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162983