Elevated Indoor Volatile Organic Compound Exposure in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. VOC Monitoring
2.3. Questionnaire
2.4. Health Risk Assessment and Adverse Health Symptoms
3. Results
3.1. VOC Exposure and Risk Estimates
3.2. Non-Cancer Health Outcomes
4. Discussion
4.1. Indoor Air Pollution Sources for VOCs Posing Cancer and Non-Cancer Health Risks
4.2. Health Risks and Concerns
4.3. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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VOC (µg/m3) | CAS Number | Detection Frequency (%) | Mean Indoor Concentrations | Median Indoor Concentrations | Standard Deviation | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | 71-43-2 | 100 | 25.7 | 16.1 | 23.2 | 9.1 | 105.4 |
Carbon tetrachloride | 56-23-5 | 100 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 1.5 |
d-Limonene | 5989-27-5 | 100 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 4.2 |
Dimethylfuran, 2,5- | 625-86-5 | 50 | 0.1 | 0.3 × 101 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.7 |
Dioxane, 1,4- | 123-91-1 | 95 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.4 |
Ethylbenzene | 100-41-4 | 100 | 5.2 | 2.5 | 10.4 | 1.0 | 48.2 |
Isopropylbenzene | 98-82-8 | 100 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 3.0 |
m,p-Xylene a | 179601-23-1 | 100 | 10.7 | 6.2 | 15.7 | 2.4 | 74.2 |
Naphthalene | 91-20-3 | 100 | 7.6 | 2.2 | 13.8 | 0.7 | 60.0 |
o-Xylene | 95-47-6 | 100 | 4.2 | 2.4 | 6.5 | 0.9 | 30.5 |
p-Dichlorobenzene | 106-46-7 | 100 | 5.1 | 0.4 | 12.1 | 0.2 | 42.0 |
p-Isopropyltoluene | 99-87-6 | 100 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 |
Propylbenzene | 103-65-1 | 100 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 0.2 | 5.9 |
sec-Butylbenzene | 135-98-8 | 100 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 1.8 |
Styrene | 100-42-5 | 100 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 4.0 | 0.4 | 18.7 |
Trimethylbenzene, 1,2,3- | 526-73-8 | 100 | 1.7 | 1.1 | 1.6 | 0.5 | 6.8 |
Trimethylbenzene, 1,2,4- | 95-63-6 | 100 | 4.0 | 2.7 | 4.1 | 0.9 | 18.2 |
Trimethylbenzene, 1,3,5- | 108-67-8 | 100 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 7.9 |
Toluene | 108-88-3 | 100 | 21.9 | 12.5 | 34.7 | 6.2 | 163.4 |
Xylenes (mixed) b | 1330-20-7 | 100 | 14.8 | 8.8 | 22.2 | 3.3 | 104.7 |
VOC | Reference Concentration [16] (μg/m3) | Hazard Quotient | IUR [17] (1/106) (μg/m3)−1 | Cancer Risk | % Total Cancer Risk | Predicted Organ System(s) Impacted [16] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | 3 × 101 | 9 × 10−1 | 8 × 10−6 | 2 × 10−4 | 38 | Immune |
Carbon tetrachloride | 1 × 102 | 1 × 10−2 | 6 × 10−6 | 6 × 10−6 | 1.1 | Hepatic |
Dioxane, 1,4- | 3 × 101 | 7 × 10−3 | 5 ×10−6 | 1 × 10−6 | 0.1 | Nervous, Respiratory |
Ethylbenzene | 1 × 103 | 5 × 10−3 | 3 × 10−6 | 1 × 10−5 | 2.5 | Developmental |
Naphthalene | 3 × 100 | 3 × 100 | 3 × 10−5 | 3 × 10−4 | 48 | Nervous, Respiratory |
p-Dichlorobenzene | 8 × 102 | 6 × 10−3 | 1 × 10−5 | 6 × 10−5 | 10 | Hepatic |
Styrene | 1 × 103 | 2 × 10−3 | - | - | - | Nervous |
Toluene | 5 × 103 | 4 × 10−3 | - | - | - | Nervous |
Trimethylbenzene, 1,2,4- | 6 × 101 | 7 × 10−2 | - | - | - | Nervous |
Xylenes (mixed) | 1 × 102 | 1 × 10−1 | - | - | - | Nervous |
VOC | Neurologic Symptoms OR (95% CI) | Skin Irritation OR (95% CI) | Eye Irritation OR (95% CI) | Throat Irritation OR (95% CI) | Aplastic Anemia OR (95% CI) | Gastrointestinal Symptoms OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | 0.9 (0.9, 1.0) | 0.9 (0.9, 1.0) | 1.0 (1.0, 1.1) | 1.0 (0.9, 1.1) | 1.0 (1.0,1.1) | 1.1 (1.0, 1.2) |
Carbon tetrachloride | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Dioxane, 1,4- | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Ethylbenzene | 0.9 (0.7, 1.3) | 0.8 (0.4, 1.6) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.3) | 1.0 (0.8, 1.3) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.5) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.4) |
Naphthalene | 1.0 (0.9, 1.1) | 0.8 (0.4, 1.4) | 0.9 (0.8, 1.1) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.5) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.4) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.4) |
p-Dichlorobenzene | 0.9 (0.7, 1.2) | - | - | 1.0 (0.8, 1.2) | - | - |
Styrene | 0.6 (0.1, 4.7) | 0.5 (0.1, 6.0) | 1.4 (0.6, 3.1) | 0.9 (0.3, 3.1) | 1.5 (0.5, 4.7) | 1.4 (0.7, 2.9) |
Toluene | 1.0 (0.9, 1.1) | 0.9 (0.8, 1.1) | 1.1 (1.0, 1.1) | 1.1 (1.0, 1.1) | 1.0 (1.0, 1.1) | 1.0 (1.0, 1.1) |
Trimethylbenzene, 1,2,4- | 1.0 (0.7, 1.2) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.3) | 1.2 (0.9, 1.6) | 1.0 (0.7, 1.6) | 1.3 (1.0, 1.8) | 1.3 (1.0, 1.8) |
Xylenes (mixed) | 1.0 (0.9, 1.1) | 1.0 (0.8, 1.1) | 1.0 (1.0, 1.1) | 1.0 (0.9, 1,1) | 1.1 (1.0, 1.2) | 1.1 (1.0, 1,1) |
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Kponee, K.Z.; Nwanaji-Enwerem, J.C.; Fu, X.; Kakulu, I.I.; Weisskopf, M.G.; Jia, C. Elevated Indoor Volatile Organic Compound Exposure in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091939
Kponee KZ, Nwanaji-Enwerem JC, Fu X, Kakulu II, Weisskopf MG, Jia C. Elevated Indoor Volatile Organic Compound Exposure in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(9):1939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091939
Chicago/Turabian StyleKponee, Kalé Z., Jamaji C. Nwanaji-Enwerem, Xianqiang Fu, Iyenemi I. Kakulu, Marc G. Weisskopf, and Chunrong Jia. 2018. "Elevated Indoor Volatile Organic Compound Exposure in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 9: 1939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091939