Current Status of the Degradation of Aliphatic and Aromatic Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Thermophilic Microbes and Future Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Summary of Work on PHDT
2.1. Alkane Biodegradation
2.2. Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (MAHs)
2.3. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
3. General Findings
3.1. Geobacillus Are the Most Dominant PHDT
3.2. Short Chain n-Alkanes Are Less Efficiency Degraded
3.3. Specific Observations in Relation to Mechanisms of Degradation
3.3.1. n-Alkanes
3.3.2. MAHs
3.3.3. PAHs
4. Gaps and Strategies to Improve Biodegradation by Thermophiles
4.1. Isolation of More Thermophilic Microbes
4.1.1. Use of Experimental Set-Up
4.1.2. Genomic Approach
4.2. Improving Biodegradation
4.2.1. Bioaugmentation
4.2.2. Cometabolism
5. Concluding Remarks
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Source of Samples | Conditions of Isolation | Thermophiles Used or Isolated | Range of Temperatures and/or Optimum Temperature (in Parentheses) | Petroleum Products Degraded or Other Characteristics of the Strains | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n-alkanes | ST1 | Samples of water or soil | Enrichment culture in the presence hydrocarbon at 57 °C | Bacillus stearothermophilus | (57 °C) | Hydrocarbons | [23] |
ST2 | Mud sample from a littoral area of North Carolina, USA | Enrichment culture in the presence n-hexadecane at 50 °C | Thermomicrobium fosteri PTA-1, | 42 to 70 °C (60 °C) | * n-alkanes (nC10–C20), 1-Alkenes (C14–C1), alcohol (C12–C17) and ketones (C14–C17) C14 * but not <C9 (n-alkanes), <C9 (alkene and ketones) and <C11 (alcohol) | [24] | |
ST3 | Mud samples from Yellowstone National Park, USA | Enrichment culture in the presence n-heptadecane at 60 °C | Thermoleophilum minutum YS-3 Thermoleophilum album YS-4 | (60 °C) | * n-alkane C10–C20 but not those <C9 * C6–C8 alkenes, but not <C6 alkenes | [25,26] | |
ST4 | Hot water springs from Kunashir Island, Russia | Not provided | Geobacillus stearothermophilus 16 Thermus ruber 12 | 55–73 °C (60 °C) | Paraffins | [27] | |
ST5 | Mud and water from various parts in the USA | Enrichment in the presence of n-heptadecane at 60 °C | T. album | 45 to 70° C (60 °C) | C13–C30 | [28] | |
ST6 | Mud and water from the USA | Enrichment in the presence of n-heptadecane at 60 °C | Geobacillus thermoleovorans | 55–65 °C | n-alkane C13–C20 but not those <C9 or >C20 | [29] | |
ST7 | Contaminated samples from Kuwait | Enrichment in the presence of crude oil at 60 °C | G. stearothermophilus strains KTCC-B7S and KTCC-B2M | 60 °C | C15–C18 n-alkanes but not of lower carbon numbers, alkenes and aromatics | [30] | |
ST8 | Production water samples from deep petroleum reservoirs, Japan | No enrichment | G. thermoleovorans B23 and H41 | 50–80 °C (70 °C for B23) (65 °C for H41) | * C13–C26 n-alkanes but not for C9–C12 * Evidence of terminal oxidation of n-alkanes | [31] | |
ST9 | Deep subterranean oil reservoir, China | Enrichment in the presence of crude oil at 73 °C | Geobacillus thermodenitrificans NG80-2 | 45–73 °C (65 °C) | * C15–C36 n-alkanes but not the short-chain (C8–C14) and those longer than C40 * No alkB gene homologs found in NG80-2 | [32] | |
ST10 | Soil samples, Ireland | Enrichment at 60 °C in the presence of n-hexadecane | G. thermoleovorans 27, Geobacillus caldoxylosilyticus 17, Geobacillus pallidus 2, Geobacillus toebii 1, Geobacillus sp. | (60 °C) | * n-hexadecane * Expression of AlkB gene induced by n-hexadecane | [34] | |
ST11 | Samples from wells in the Dongxin reservoir (temperature 60–80 °C), China | Enriched culture in the presence of n-hexadecane | Thermophilic strain TH-2 | 40–85 °C (70 °C) | Degradation of the petroleum hydrocarbons, mainly n-alkanes | [35] | |
ST12 | Formation water from the Dagang oilfield and from a thermal spring in the Baikal rift zone, Russia | Not explained | G. toebii B-1024, Geobacillus sp. 1017, Aeribacillus pallidus 8m3 | 38–70 °C (60 °C) | * C10–C30 n-alkanes (for B-1024) * C13–C19 n-alkanes (for 1017) * C11–C29 n-alkanes (for 8m3) * Simultaneous presence of alkB and ladA genes involved in the degradation of alkanes | [36] | |
ST13 | Samples from active volcano of Santorini, Greece, | Bacteria were identified by alkJ probe, following culture in rich medium at 60–80 °C | G. thermoleovorans (4 strains) G. stearothermophilus (3 strains) Geobacillus anatolicus (2 strains) Bacillus aeolius (1 strain) | 60–80 °C | * Long chain alkanes of crude oil * Use of alkJ probe to identify and select petroleum hydrocarbon degrading thermophiles (PHDT) | [38] | |
Monoaromatics | ST14 | Industrial sediment, UK | Enrichment in the presence of phenol, at 55 °C | G. stearothermophilus PH24 | (50 °C) | * Phenol and catechol * Cleavage of catechol at the meta-position | [39] |
ST15 | Same as in ST13 | Same as in ST13 | Same strain as in ST13 (G. stearothermophilus PH24) | Same as in ST13 | o-cresol, m-cresol, or p-cresol, 3-methylcatechol and 4-methylcatechol | [40,41] | |
ST16 | Soil samples that had been pasteurized for 10 min at 80 °C | Enrichment in the presence of m-cresol and phenol | G. stearothermophilus IC3 | (50 °C) | * Phenol, m-cresol and benzoic acid * Phenol degradation via catechol, and cleavage via meta-position | [42] | |
ST17 | River sediment Tittabawassee, USA | Enrichment in the presence of phenol, at 55 °C | G. stearothermophilus BR219 | (55 °C) | * Phenol * Characterization of phenol hydroxylase, the first enzyme in phenol degradation | [43,44] | |
ST18 | Not provided | Not provided | G. stearothermophilus FDTP-3 | 60–65 °C | * Phenol and catechol but no benzoic acid * catechol 2,3-dioxygenase gene was also characterized | [45] | |
ST19 | Water and mud from a hot spring, Iceland | Enrichment in the presence of phenol at 70 °C | G. thermoleovorans A2 | (65 °C) | * Phenol and o-cresol, m-cresol, p-cresol, * meta-cleavage of phenol | [46,47] | |
ST20 | Not provided | Not provided | Thermus aquaticus ATCC25104 Thermus sp. ATCC 27978 | (70 °C) (60 °C) | * Degradation of BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes) * I4C-labeled benzene and toluene were metabolized to 14CO2 | [48] | |
ST21 | Samples from a waste treatment plant (UK) and a phenol-contaminated industrial effluent (lake Zealand) | Enrichment in presence of phenol at 50 °C | Bacillus sp. | 50–55 °C | * Phenol degradation * Detection of catechol 2,3-dioxygenase * Cleavage of aromatic via the meta-pathway * Catechol 2,3-dioxygenase was inactivated at high oxygen | [49] | |
ST22 | Production water from an oil field, Tunisia | Enrichment in the presence of vanillic acid | Aeribacillus pallidus, VP3 | 37–65 °C (55 °C) | * Degradation of various aromatic compounds including benzoic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic acids * Strain was also halotolerant (can grow in the presence of 100 g L−1 of NaCl) | [50] | |
ST23 | Volcanic site at Pisciarelli Solfatara, Italy | Already preselected | Sulfolobus solfataricus P2 | (80 °C) | Anaerobic degradation of phenol | [51,52] | |
Polyaromatics | ST24 | Compost from a field in Okayama, Japan | Enrichment culture in the presence of biphenyl as sole source of carbon, at 60 °C | Geobacillus sp. JF8 | (60 °C) | * Biphenyl, chlorobiphenyl, NAPH, benzoic acid and salicylic acid but not PHEN, ANTH, benzene and xylene * Related to G. Stearothermophilus | [53] |
ST25 | PAH-contaminated soil collected from Hong Kong | Not provided | Bacillus subtilis BUM and Mycobacterium vanbaalenii BU42 | (55 °C) | Both strains could utilize PHEN as sole source of carbon * None of the strains could utilize BZP as sole source of carbon * In the presence of PHEN, only the strain BUM could degrade BZP | [54] | |
ST26 | Hot springs, compost and industrialwastewater | Not provided | Preselected mixture of strains of Geobacillus spp. Thermus sp. | 60–70 °C | * Degradation of acenaphthene FLT, PYR and BZP, in the presence of hexadecane | [55] | |
ST27 | Soil samples from contaminated areas in Kowait | Enrichment in the presence of a mixture of PAHs and heterocyclic polyaromatics | Bacillus firmus, Bacillus pallidus, Anoxybacillus sp., Paenibacillus sp., Saccharococcus sp. | (60 °C) | * Degradation of NAPH, PHEN, ANTH, PYR and FLR, benzothiophene, dibenzothiophene dibenzofuran and carbazole * Inhibition of degradation of PAHs and heterocyclic compounds in the presence of glucose | [56] | |
ST28 | Compost sample | Incubation in the presence of PHEN at 60 °C | Geobacillus sp. (3 strains) | (60 °C) | PHEN, FLR and FLT degradation | [58] | |
ST29 | Petro-industrial wastewater soil, Iran | Selection in the presence of PHEN at 50 °C | Nocardia otitidiscaviarum TSH1 | 30–55 °C (50 °C) | * NAPH, PHEN and ANTH degradation * Evidence of meta-cleavage of NAPH * Detection of various metabolites of NAPH | [59,60] | |
ST30 | Geothermal oil field in Lithuania | Pre-culture in rich medium following screening in a culture in the presence of NAPH | Geobacillus sp. G27 | (60 °C) | * Growth in the presence NAPH and ANTH, protocatechuic acid, benzene, phenol and benzene-1, 3-diol * No growth in the presence of catechol * Degradation of NAPH through protocatechuic acid via ortho-cleavage pathway | [61] | |
ST31 | Hydrocarbon contaminated compost, Germany | Enrichment in the presence of NAPH, at 60 °C | G. thermoleovorans Hamburg 2 | (60 °C) | * Degradation of NAPH * Detection of phthalic and benzoic acid as NAPH metabolites | [62] | |
ST32 | Contaminated soilsamples from Yumen oilfield, China | Enrichment in the presence of PHEN, FLR and crude oil at 60 °C | Geobacillus pallidus XS2 and XS3 | (60 °C) | * PHE, FLR and crude oil * Preference of nC8–C19 for XS2 strain and n-C20–C38 for XS3 strain * Production of emulsifier by the 2 strains | [63] | |
ST33 | Soil from a deep oil well, China | Enrichment in the presence of crude oil at 70 °C | Geobacillus sp. SH-1 | 45–80 °C (60 °C) | * Degradation of NAPH and nC12–C23 (from crude oil) * Detection of NAPH metabolites | [64] | |
ST34 | Produced water from Dagang petroleum reservoir at 73 °C, China | Already growing in petroleum environment | G. stearothermophilus strain A-2 | 40–75 °C (60 °C) | * NAPH, methylated-PHEN, FLR, benzo[b]fluorenes and long-chain alkanes (C22–C33) * Low degradation of shorter chains (C14–C21) * Production of bio-emulsifier | [65] | |
ST35 | Hot spring from Guerrero State, Mexico | Non explained | Bacillus licheniformis M2-7 | (50 °C) | * BZP * Identification of phthalic acid as a BZP metabolite * Characterization of catechol dioxygenase enzyme | [66] |
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Nzila, A. Current Status of the Degradation of Aliphatic and Aromatic Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Thermophilic Microbes and Future Perspectives. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122782
Nzila A. Current Status of the Degradation of Aliphatic and Aromatic Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Thermophilic Microbes and Future Perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(12):2782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122782
Chicago/Turabian StyleNzila, Alexis. 2018. "Current Status of the Degradation of Aliphatic and Aromatic Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Thermophilic Microbes and Future Perspectives" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 12: 2782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122782