Nutrition Transition and Biocultural Determinants of Obesity among Cameroonian Migrants in Urban Cameroon and France
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Qualitative Study
2.2.1. Study Process
2.2.2. Sampling
2.3. Quantitative Survey
2.3.1. Study Process
2.3.2. Sampling
2.3.3. Perceptions of Corpulence
2.3.4. Food Frequency
2.3.5. Physical Activity
2.3.6. Anthropometry and Blood Pressure
2.4. Data Analysis
2.4.1. Qualitative Study
2.4.2. Quantitative Study
Migration Status
Dietary Intake
PCA and MCAs
Body Image
Physical Activity
Relationships between Beliefs, Practices and Body Weight
2.5. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Qualitative Study
3.1.1. The Social Perceptions of Stoutness
- Man, rural area, king, thirties:“In principle, only notables can wear this kind of clothes, the njocho, it means: “the clothes of titan”. In lacam, after nine weeks of confinement, you have to be like this (very large corpulence). Every day, you must eat palm oil, they even anoint you with it. Concerning my weight, it made me change. Being well means being with your belly, the administrative belly. The Chief’s belly announces fertility for the village in the near future.”
- Man, rural area, notable/farmer, sixties:“Some women before marriage were undergoing an initiation ritual, the mezin. Women who cannot easily grow, too feeble, they were in competition for the mezin path. They ate to become fat. Once they enter mezin, they embalm themselves with palm oil as makeup. During two or three weeks, they bathe in oil, they eat a lot, nkui couscous, pistachio sauce, tarot yellow sauce, they coddle. Afterwards their corpulence has changed, they become plump. They gain respect after that, they are pretty. For a while, they do even more work in the fields.”
- Man, urban area, pupil, twenties:“I want to get to 70 kilos (1.63 m; 67.1 kg). When I will have more money, I want a belly. When you see the belly, here’s a boss! When the man has money and he hasn’t got a belly, people say that he does nothing with it.”
- Woman, urban Area, student, twenties:“For a woman, being overweight suggests that her husband takes good care of her, that he is comfortable, he has money.”
- Man, Paris area, night watchman, thirties:“I enrolled in a sports club yesterday for a year. So, the goal is to maintain fitness and refine a little bit my body. I know that doing sport over a year, I will lose at least four or five kilograms. But after that, I can no longer lose. Sports must be regular, at least two three times a week. I have a BMI of 25.5. Normal is between 18 and 25. Between 25 and 30, one is overweight, between 30 and 35, one is obese, etc. Here I have a BMI of 25.5. My BMI was even higher before the diet. Now, doing sport, I bring it down below 25. I know that in Africa, when you’re like I am, that’s fine. At home (in Cameroon), you are told: “If it is not the food that kills someone, it will be something else”. In Cameroon, I have even heard people telling me that I need to drink more beer because I do not have enough belly”.
3.1.2. Diet Perceptions and Practices
- Man, rural area, notable/farmer, sixties:“In traditional food, we eat taro, yams, corn couscous, but rarely fruits. In our tradition, we ate what was particularly good. Fruit like guava are food for children. A man of my age cannot eat it. But we ate vegetables; moreover, some of our traditional vegetables, they are not eaten today. At that time, there were no shortages, with agriculture, there was no famine. Historically, in the village, I have never known people who were hungry. Palm oil is the basis of our diet; without palm oil, people would panic. Palm oil is essential, everything is prepared with it. This is a good food, it gives strength everywhere.”
- Man, rural area, king, thirties:“The traditional oil is oil-based palm nuts. Today, concerning the industry, it is not the oil of the village anymore, it is not nutritious. So much has changed, it has blown all the vitamins. We bleached oil, after there is no more carotene. Traditionally, we did not fry the oil like that, we also did not fry vegetables constantly, they are boiled. We ate well, there is not even a concept to express “snack” in tradition, we only ate three times a day.”
- Man, Paris area, manager, thirties:“Since we introduced frozen chicken at home, things like that, and people eat because they think it’s quick, they directly have the “Western diseases”, those did not exist before, such as diabetes. All this is due to modern food. I have many friends, when I visit them at home, it is only modern food. So they are big, they are potbellied, there is the belly, they abnormally gain weight while I’m still frail. I see the difference. The food from the home country gives strength to the body, but it is not fattening because in fact it is healthy. In fact, there are less unnatural things in the diet that will be added to the body to swell it.”
- Woman, Paris area, housewife, fifties:“It bothers me! But fortunately, I started with my children from an early age, already little, giving them Cameroonian dishes. I am Cameroonian, so: “You need to eat Cameroonian dishes". They began to eat that a little, so that when they went to Cameroon, they do not really discover anything.”
- Man, Paris area, Paris area, handler, thirties:“Here, the real problem with food from the home country is the price. Home country foods are expensive. Frozen costs less.”
3.1.3. Physical Activity
- Woman, Paris area, housewife, sixties:“In fact, as we are too sedentary in our country, we do not practice sports. I’m talking about moms who are now in town, because our moms were physically active. They worked in the fields. So they did not have all these problems. But after people moved into town, the settlement and all that...”
- Woman, Paris area, housewife, sixties:“When I can, I walk. I would not take my car to buy bread as some people do. Sometimes, I go to the same post office five times a day by foot. I try to avoid the damage (of a sedentary lifestyle). There are some moments when we can do this. In winter, you cannot. The weather now is sad. At 3pm, it is already dark, we do not have the courage to go out.”
- Man, Paris area, handler, thirties:“I do not run anymore because there is not really enough time. Time is saturated by work at the store.”
3.2. Quantitative Survey
3.2.1. Perceptions of Corpulence
3.2.2. Dietary Intake
3.3. Physical Activity
3.4. Migration Status and Determinants of Obesity
3.5. Anthropometry and Blood Pressure
3.6. Analysis of Obesity Determinants
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contribution
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Investigation Areas | Rural Cameroon | Urban Cameroon | Urban France |
---|---|---|---|
Qualitative survey | |||
Sample size, n | 12 | 12 | 12 |
Sex, % men | 50 | 50 | 50 |
Age, % (18–30) years | 50 | 50 | 50 |
Location | Village of Diambou | Bamiléké neighbourhoods of the capital | Bamiléké migrant associations |
Quantitative Survey | |||
Sample size, n | 258 | 319 | 50 |
Sex, % men | 48.8 | 43.9 | 56.0 |
Age, Mean | 40.2 ± 15.6 | 37.3 ± 11.9 | 46.4 ± 11.8 |
Location | Village of Diambou | Bamiléké neighbourhoods of the capital | Bamiléké migrant associations. Cultural events: weddings, baptisms, community celebrations. Cameroonian restaurants and at home |
Migration Status | Higher-Calorie Diet | Physical Activity | Desired Body Size | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cameroonian migrants | ||||||
Yaoundé living duration | p | p | p | |||
0 years | 23.2% (n = 19) | 3.0 ± 1.8 (n = 84) | 5.1 ± 1.8 (n = 83) | |||
(1–15) years | 30.7% (n = 55) | 2.6 ± 1.6 (n = 180) | 4.9 ± 1.5 (n = 178) | |||
(16–30) years | 42.5% (n = 94) | 2.1 ± 1.4 (n = 222) | 5.1 ± 1.7 (n = 223) | |||
>30 years | 26.7% (n = 23) | ** | 2.0 ± 1.5 (n = 85) | *** | 5.3 ± 1.7 (n = 84) | NS |
Parisian Cameroonian migrants | ||||||
Paris living duration | ||||||
(1–15) years | 41.6% (n = 10) | 0.3 ± 0.3 (n = 24) | 3.6 ± 1.2 (n = 24) | |||
(16–30) years | 14.3% (n = 2) | 0.2 ± 0.3 (n = 14) | 3.5 ± 1.1 (n = 14) | |||
>30 years | 16.7% (n = 2) | NS | 0.1 ± 0.2 (n = 12) | NS | 4.1 ± 1.6 (n = 12) | NS |
Cameroon living duration | ||||||
(1–20) years | 18.2% (n = 2) | 0.2 ± 0.3 (n = 11) | 3.6 ± 0.8 (n = 11) | |||
(21–30) years | 27.6% (n = 8) | 0.2 ± 0.3 (n = 29) | 3.8 ± 1.3 (n = 29) | |||
>30 years | 40.0% (n = 4) | NS | 0.2 ± 0.3 (n = 10) | NS | 3.6 ± 1.5 (n = 10) | NS |
Measures | Rural Cameroon | Urban Cameroon | Urban France | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men | n = 126 | n = 140 | n = 28 | p |
BMI | 24.2 ± 3.8 c–c | 26.9 ± 3.8 c–b | 29.4 ± 3.8 c–b | *** |
Waist circumference (cm) | 84.1 ± 9.1 c–c | 90.3 ± 9.1 c–c | 98.8 ± 9.1 c–c | *** |
Hip circumference (cm) | 94.4 ± 8.4 c–c | 100.6 ± 8.4 c–a | 105.5 ± 8.4 c–a | *** |
Waist to hip ratio | 0.9 ± 0.06 x–b | 0.9 ± 0.06 x–b | 0.9 ± 0.06 b–b | ** |
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 128.4 ± 19.8 x–x | 131.1 ± 19.9 x–x | 133.0 ± 19.9 x–x | NS |
Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 80.6 ± 13.1 b–a | 85.2 ± 13.1 b–x | 86.6 ± 13.2 a–x | ** |
Women | n = 132 | n = 179 | n = 22 | p |
BMI | 27.0 ± 5.3 c–x | 29.2 ± 5.3 c–x | 28.4 ± 5.4 x–x | ** |
Waist circumference (cm) | 90.1 ± 11.6 x–a | 91.7 ± 11.7 x–x | 96.8 ± 11.8 a–x | * |
Hip circumference (cm) | 103.4 ± 12.2 c–x | 108.5 ± 12.2 c–x | 107.7± 12.4 x–x | ** |
Waist to Hip Ratio | 0.87 ± 0.06 c–x | 0.85 ± 0.06 c–c | 0.9 ± 0.06 x–c | *** |
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 118.5 ± 19.4 a–x | 123.2 ± 19.5 a–x | 117.7 ± 19.8 x–x | NS |
Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) | 78.4 ± 12.3 c–x | 83.5 ± 12.4 c–x | 80.3 ± 12.6 x–x | ** |
Predictors | Categories | Obesity | |
---|---|---|---|
uOR CI | aOR CI | ||
Sex *** | Men † | ||
Women | 2.4 (1.6–3.5c) | 2.5 (1.6–3.8c) | |
Age *** | 1.0 (1.0–1.1c) | 1.0 (1.0–1.1b) | |
Migration status *** | No or lower urban living duration † | ||
>25 years of Yaoundé residency | 2.5 (1.7–3.8c) | 1.7 (1.1–2.6a) | |
>10 years of Paris region residency | 3.1 (1.5–6.2b) | 3.3 (1.2–8.8a) | |
Educational level | Others † | ||
University | 0.7 (0.5–1.2) | 0.8 (0.4–1.5) | |
Calorie-level of diet | Others † | ||
Higher calorie diet | 1.0 (0.7–1.4) | 1.1 (0.7–1.7) | |
Physical activity *** | 0.8 (0.7–0.9c) | 0.8 (0.7–0.9b) | |
Overweight valorisation *** | Non-valorisation † | ||
Valorisation | 3.4 (2.2–5.2c) | 3.5 (2.1–5.7c) |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Cohen, E.; Amougou, N.; Ponty, A.; Loinger-Beck, J.; Nkuintchua, T.; Monteillet, N.; Bernard, J.Y.; Saïd-Mohamed, R.; Holdsworth, M.; Pasquet, P. Nutrition Transition and Biocultural Determinants of Obesity among Cameroonian Migrants in Urban Cameroon and France. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 696. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070696
Cohen E, Amougou N, Ponty A, Loinger-Beck J, Nkuintchua T, Monteillet N, Bernard JY, Saïd-Mohamed R, Holdsworth M, Pasquet P. Nutrition Transition and Biocultural Determinants of Obesity among Cameroonian Migrants in Urban Cameroon and France. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(7):696. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070696
Chicago/Turabian StyleCohen, Emmanuel, Norbert Amougou, Amandine Ponty, Juliette Loinger-Beck, Téodyl Nkuintchua, Nicolas Monteillet, Jonathan Y. Bernard, Rihlat Saïd-Mohamed, Michelle Holdsworth, and Patrick Pasquet. 2017. "Nutrition Transition and Biocultural Determinants of Obesity among Cameroonian Migrants in Urban Cameroon and France" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 7: 696. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070696