Evaluation of Drought Implications on Ecosystem Services: Freshwater Provisioning and Food Provisioning in the Upper Mississippi River Basin
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. SWAT Model Set-Up and Calibration
2.3. Drought Indices
2.3.1. Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)
2.3.2. Standardized Streamflow Index (SSI) and Soil Water Content Index (SWCI)
2.4. Ecosystem Services Quantification
2.4.1. Freshwater Provisioning Calculation
2.4.2. Food Provisioning Calculation
2.5. Impacts of Drought on FWP and FP
3. Results
3.1. SWAT Model Calibration and Validation
3.2. Drought Characteristic Analysis
3.3. Drought Impacts on Freshwater Provisioning
3.3.1. Meteorological Drought Impacts on Annual Freshwater Provisioning
3.3.2. Hydrological Drought Impacts on Annual Freshwater Provisioning
3.3.3. Meteorological Drought Impacts on Seasonal Freshwater Provisioning
3.4. Meteorological Drought and Agricultural Drought Impacts on Food Provisioning
4. Discussion
4.1. Drought Impacts on Annual Freshwater Provisioning
4.2. Meteorological Drought Impacts on Seasonal Freshwater Provisioning
4.3. Meteorological Drought and Agricultural Drought Impacts on Food Provisioning
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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#HUC4 | Subbasin Name | States | Drainage Area (103 km2) | Slope (%) | Cropland (%) | Pasture (%) | Forest (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0701 | Mississippi Headwaters | MN | 96.1 | 2.4 | 14 | 3 | 42 |
0702 | Minnesota | IA, MN | 44.1 | 2.3 | 70 | 9 | 3 |
0703 | St. Croix | WI, MN | 20 | 3.3 | 3 | 10 | 60 |
0704 | Upper Mississippi-Black-Root | MN, WI | 168.7 | 9.6 | 28 | 20 | 37 |
0705 | Chippewa | WI | 24.7 | 4.7 | 7 | 7 | 57 |
0706 | Upper Mississippi-Maquoketa-Plum | IA, WI | 221.8 | 9.3 | 33 | 31 | 25 |
0707 | Wisconsin | WI | 30.9 | 7.3 | 9 | 13 | 51 |
0708 | Upper Mississippi-Iowa-Skunk-Wapsipinicon | IA | 309.4 | 3.6 | 66 | 17 | 6 |
0709 | Rock | IL, WI | 28.2 | 3.3 | 50 | 20 | 11 |
0710 | Des Moines | IA, MN | 37.4 | 3.8 | 64 | 15 | 10 |
0711 | Upper Mississippi-Salt | IL, MO, IA | 447.6 | 4.6 | 32 | 32 | 27 |
0712 | Upper Illinois | IL, IN | 28.3 | 1.7 | 50 | 9 | 10 |
0713 | Lower Illinois | IL | 74.7 | 3.0 | 65 | 9 | 15 |
0714 | Upper Mississippi-Kaskaskia-Meramec | IL, MO | 491.9 | 4.6 | 27 | 19 | 42 |
HUC4 Subbasin | Station Name | USGS Station# | Calibration | Validation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
r2 | NSE | r2 | NSE | |||
Mississippi Headwaters | St. Paul | 05331000 | 0.75 | 0.59 | 0.8 | 0.7 |
Minnesota | Jordan | 05330000 | 0.85 | 0.83 | 0.81 | 0.72 |
St. Croix | St. Croix | 05340500 | 0.66 | 0.53 | 0.71 | 0.19 |
Chippewa | Durand | 05369500 | 0.7 | 0.65 | 0.76 | 0.73 |
Upper Mississippi-Maquoketa-Plum | McGregor | 05389500 | 0.73 | 0.64 | 0.79 | 0.56 |
Wisconsin | Muscoda | 05407000 | 0.7 | 0.65 | 0.75 | 0.62 |
Upper Mississippi-Iowa-Skunk-Wapsipinicon | Clinton | 05420500 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.79 | 0.58 |
Upper Mississippi-Iowa-Skunk-Wapsipinicon | Augusta | 05474000 | 0.76 | 0.64 | 0.83 | 0.8 |
Upper Mississippi-Iowa-Skunk-Wapsipinicon | Wapello | 05465500 | 0.74 | 0.68 | 0.82 | 0.77 |
Rock | Joslin | 05446500 | 0.85 | 0.51 | 0.81 | 0.4 |
Des Moines | Keosauqua | 05490500 | 0.75 | 0.75 | 0.84 | 0.84 |
Upper Mississippi-Salt | Grafton | 05587455 | 0.81 | 0.72 | 0.83 | 0.74 |
Lower Illinois | Valley City | 05586100 | 0.84 | 0.77 | 0.79 | 0.61 |
HUC4 Subbasins | 0701 | 0702 | 0703 | 0704 | 0705 | 0706 | 0707 | 0708 | 0709 | 0710 | 0711 | 0712 | 0713 | 0714 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Drought years | 1987 | 1987 | 1987 | 1988 | 1987 | 1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1987 | 1988 |
1988 | 1988 | 1988 | 1989 | 1988 | 1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 1988 | 1989 | |
1989 | 1989 | 1989 | 2003 | 1989 | 2003 | 1997 | 2003 | 2003 | 2012 | 1999 | 2002 | 1989 | 1991 | |
1992 | 2003 | 1992 | 2006 | 2012 | 2003 | 2012 | 2005 | 2012 | 2005 | 2005 | 1992 | |||
2003 | 1997 | 2009 | 2005 | 2012 | 2012 | 2012 | 2007 | |||||||
2006 | 2006 | 2012 | 2012 | |||||||||||
2009 |
Correlation Coefficient (r) | 0701 | 0702 | 0703 | 0704 | 0705 | 0706 | 0707 | 0708 | 0709 | 0710 | 0711 | 0712 | 0713 | 0714 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SPI12 vs. SSWI12 | 0.54 * | 0.70 * | 0.48 * | 0.61 * | 0.58 * | 0.67 * | 0.47 * | 0.78 * | 0.78 * | 0.68 * | 0.88 * | 0.78 * | 0.86 * | 0.73 * |
SPI12 vs. SSI12 | 0.72 * | 0.87 * | 0.87 * | 0.58 * | 0.83 * | 0.60 * | 0.61 * | 0.73 * | 0.81 * | 0.90 * | 0.76 * | 0.87 * | 0.90 * | 0.58 * |
SSWI12 vs. SSI12 | 0.52 * | 0.75 * | 0.47 * | 0.55 * | 0.63 * | 0.60 * | 0.51 * | 0.70 * | 0.76 * | 0.73 * | 0.78 * | 0.75 * | 0.81 * | 0.62 * |
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Li, P.; Omani, N.; Chaubey, I.; Wei, X. Evaluation of Drought Implications on Ecosystem Services: Freshwater Provisioning and Food Provisioning in the Upper Mississippi River Basin. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050496
Li P, Omani N, Chaubey I, Wei X. Evaluation of Drought Implications on Ecosystem Services: Freshwater Provisioning and Food Provisioning in the Upper Mississippi River Basin. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(5):496. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050496
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Ping, Nina Omani, Indrajeet Chaubey, and Xiaomei Wei. 2017. "Evaluation of Drought Implications on Ecosystem Services: Freshwater Provisioning and Food Provisioning in the Upper Mississippi River Basin" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 5: 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050496