Integrated Evaluation of Coupling Coordination for Land Use Change and Ecological Security: A Case Study in Wuhan City of Hubei Province, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area and Data
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Sources
3. Methods
3.1. Analysis of Land Use Change
3.2. Assessment of Ecological Security
3.2.1. Emergy Analysis
3.2.2. Calculation of Ecosystem Emergy
3.2.3. Evaluating Indicators System Based on Emergy
3.2.4. Emergy-Based Ecological Security Index
3.3. Coupling Coordination Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Analysis of Land Use Change
4.2. Assessment of Ecological Security Based on Emergy
4.3. Coupling Coordination Analysis
5. Discussion
5.1. Driving Forces of Land Use Change in Wuhan City
5.2. Main Factors Influencing Ecological Security Change in Wuhan City
5.3. Implications of Land Use and Environmental Management According to Coupling Coordination Analysis
5.4. Comparison with Previous Studies and Further Research Prospects
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Item | Value | Unit | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Sunlight | |||
Area | =8.57 × 109 | m2 | ||
Sun radiation | =5.65 × 109 | J/(m2year) | [32] | |
Energy | =(area) × (sun radiation) | J/year | ||
UEV | =1 | seJ/year | [50] | |
2 | Wind | |||
Area | =8.57 × 109 | m2 | ||
Air density | =1.23 | kg/m3 | ||
Eddy diffusivity | =12.95 | m3/s | [32] | |
Wind velocity gradient | =3.93 × 10−3 | m/s/m2 | [32] | |
Time frame | =3.15 × 107 | s/year | ||
Energy | =(area) × (air density) × (eddy diffusivity) × (wind velocity gradient)2 × (time frame) × 1000 | J/year | ||
UEV | =1.91 × 103 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
3 | Rain (geopotential) | |||
Area | =8.57 × 109 | m2 | ||
Average elevation | =23.3 | m | [32] | |
Annual rainfall | m/year | [32] | ||
Acceleration of gravity | =9.8 | m/s2 | ||
Water density | =1000 | kg/m3 | ||
Energy | =(area) × (average elevation) × (annual rainfall) × (acceleration of gravity) × (water density) | J/year | ||
UEV | =1.32 × 104 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
4 | Rain (chemical) | |||
Area | =8.57 × 109 | m2 | ||
Annual rainfall | m/year | [32] | ||
Gibbs energy of rain | =4.94 | J/g | ||
Water density | =1000 | kg/m3 | ||
Energy | =(area) × (annual rainfall) × (gibbs energy of rain) × (water density) | J/year | ||
UEV | =2.32 × 104 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
5 | Geothermal heat | |||
Area | =8.57 × 109 | m2 | ||
Heat flux | =1.45 × 106 | J/m2/year | [32] | |
Energy | =(area) × (heat flux) | J/year | ||
UEV | =5.38 × 104 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
6 | Top soil | |||
Cultivated area | m2 | |||
Erosion rate | =250 | g/m2/year | [25,26,27,28,29,30,31] | |
Organic matter in top soil | =56.4 | % | ||
Organic matter energy | =2.26 × 104 | J/g | ||
Energy | =(cultivated area) × (erosion rate) × (organic matter in top soil) × (organic matter energy) | J/year | ||
UEV | =9.35 × 104 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
7 | Coal | |||
Coal consumption | t/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =2.09 × 1010 | J/t | ||
Energy | =(coal consumption) × (en. content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =5.08 × 104 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline | |
8 | Coke | |||
Coke consumption | t/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =3.18 × 1010 | J/t | ||
Energy | =(coke consumption) × (en. content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =8.36 × 104 | seJ/year | [51], converted to the new baseline | |
9 | Crude oil | |||
Crude oil consumption | t/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =4.18 × 1010 | J/t | ||
Energy | =(crude oil consumption) × (en. content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =6.90 × 104 | seJ/J | [51], converted to the new baseline | |
10 | Gasoline | |||
Gasoline consumption | t/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =4.61 × 1010 | J/t | ||
Energy | =(gasoline consumption) × (en.content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =7.98 × 104 | seJ/J | [51], converted to the new baseline | |
11 | Kerosene | |||
Kerosene consumption | t/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =4.35 × 1010 | J/t | ||
Energy | =(kerosene consumption) × (en.content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =8.36 × 104 | seJ/J | [51], converted to the new baseline | |
12 | Liquefied petroleum gas | |||
Liquefied petroleum gas consumption | m3/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =2.93 × 1010 | J/m3 | ||
Energy | =(liquefied petroleum gas consumption) × (en. content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =8.44 × 104 | seJ/J | [51], converted to the new baseline | |
13 | Electricity | |||
Electricity consumption | kWh/year | [18,19,20,21,22,23,24] | ||
Energy content | =3.60 × 106 | J/kWh | ||
Energy | =(electricity consumption) × (en. content) | J/year | ||
UEV | =1.32 × 105 | seJ/J | [50], converted to the new baseline |
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Index | Calculation | Unit |
---|---|---|
Environment loading ratio | (N + F + E)/R | - |
Environmental potential | R/N + F + R | - |
Ecological cost per GDP | (E2 + E3 + E4)/GDP | seJ/$ |
Emissions impact per energy consumption | E/F | - |
Land Types/Period | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2008–2009 | 2009–2010 | 2010–2011 | 2011–2012 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cultivated land | −1.04% | −0.65% | −0.78% | −0.98% | −1.31% | −1.45% |
Water bodies | −0.58% | −0.37% | −0.50% | −0.56% | −0.77% | −0.67% |
Built-up area | 4.33% | 3.88% | 2.83% | 3.78% | 3.77% | 4.62% |
Forestry | −0.31% | −0.43% | −0.50% | −0.43% | −0.41% | −0.47% |
Period | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2008–2009 | 2009–2010 | 2010–2011 | 2011–2012 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rt | 1.32% | 0.89% | 1.10% | 1.27% | 1.66% | 1.69% |
Note | Item | Unit | UEV (seJ/Unit) | Source * | Emergy (seJ/year) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | |||||
Local Renewable resources (R) | |||||||||||
1 | Sunlight | J/year | 1 | [50] | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 | 4.84 × 1019 |
2 | Wind | J/year | 1.91 × 103 | [50] | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 |
3 | Rain (geopotential) | J/year | 1.32 × 104 | [50] | 2.71 × 1023 | 3.16 × 1023 | 3.28 × 1023 | 3.00 × 1023 | 3.46 × 1023 | 2.55 × 1023 | 3.66 × 1023 |
4 | Rain (chemical) | J/year | 2.32 × 104 | [50] | 1.03 × 1022 | 1.20 × 1022 | 1.24 × 1022 | 1.14 × 1022 | 1.31 × 1022 | 9.69 × 1021 | 1.39 × 1022 |
5 | Geothermal heat | J/year | 5.38 × 104 | [50] | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 | 5.44 × 1020 |
Local Non-renewable resources (N) | |||||||||||
6 | Topsoil loss | J/year | 9.35 × 104 | [50] | 1.08 × 1021 | 1.06 × 1021 | 1.06 × 1021 | 1.05 × 1021 | 1.04 × 1021 | 1.03 × 1021 | 1.01 × 1021 |
Imported (non-renewable) inputs (F) | |||||||||||
7 | Coal | J/year | 5.08 × 104 | [50] | 3.33 × 1021 | 3.94 × 1021 | 3.85 × 1021 | 1.82 × 1022 | 2.12 × 1022 | 1.82 × 1022 | 2.13 × 1022 |
8 | Coke | J/year | 8.36 × 104 | [51] | 1.08 × 1022 | 1.04 × 1022 | 1.24 × 1022 | 1.19 × 1022 | 1.58 × 1022 | 1.64 × 1022 | 1.54 × 1022 |
9 | Crude Oil | J/year | 6.90 × 104 | [51] | 1.17 × 1022 | 1.24 × 1022 | 1.15 × 1022 | 1.31 × 1022 | 1.44 × 1022 | 1.46 × 1022 | 1.25 × 1022 |
10 | Gasoline | J/year | 7.98 × 104 | [51] | 2.36 × 1022 | 2.53 × 1022 | 3.22 × 1022 | 3.23 × 1022 | 3.36 × 1022 | 3.62 × 1022 | 4.12 × 1022 |
11 | Kerosene | J/year | 8.36 × 104 | [51] | 4.95 × 1022 | 5.46 × 1022 | 6.64 × 1022 | 7.28 × 1022 | 7.51 × 1022 | 7.55 × 1022 | 8.09 × 1022 |
12 | Liquefied petroleum gas | J/year | 8.44 × 104 | [51] | 1.11 × 1019 | 1.56 × 1019 | 1.63 × 1019 | 1.76 × 1019 | 2.87 × 1019 | 2.05 × 1019 | 1.43 × 1019 |
13 | Electricity | J/year | 1.32 × 105 | [50] | 1.10 × 1022 | 1.36 × 1022 | 1.36 × 1022 | 1.48 × 1022 | 1.68 × 1022 | 1.83 × 1022 | 1.92 × 1022 |
Emissions Impact (E) | |||||||||||
Ecological services needed to dissipate the emissions (E1) | |||||||||||
14 | SO2 | J/year | ** | - | 7.75 × 1019 | 7.43 × 1019 | 6.89 × 1019 | 6.66 × 1018 | 5.15 × 1019 | 6.02 × 1019 | 5.87 × 1019 |
15 | Industrial dust | J/year | ** | - | 1.94 × 1018 | 1.23 × 1018 | 1.18 × 1018 | 1.14 × 1018 | 1.19 × 1018 | 2.47 × 1018 | 2.31 × 1018 |
16 | Soot | J/year | ** | - | 3.31 × 1019 | 3.11 × 1019 | 2.82 × 1019 | 2.36 × 1019 | 1.01 × 1019 | 2.10 × 1019 | 1.96 × 1019 |
17 | NOx | J/year | ** | - | 4.68 × 1019 | 4.49 × 1019 | 4.17 × 1019 | 4.03 × 1018 | 3.11 × 1019 | 3.74 × 1019 | 3.46 × 1019 |
18 | COD | J/year | ** | - | 2.37 × 1021 | 2.27 × 1021 | 2.20 × 1021 | 2.16 × 1021 | 2.10 × 1021 | 2.44 × 1021 | 2.31 × 1021 |
19 | NH3-N | J/year | ** | - | 2.63 × 1021 | 3.47 × 1021 | 4.79 × 1021 | 3.82 × 1021 | 3.64 × 1021 | 3.89 × 1021 | 4.74 × 1021 |
Emergy of the human life losses caused by the emissions (E2) | |||||||||||
20 | SO2 | J/year | ** | - | 6.51 × 1019 | 6.25 × 1019 | 5.79 × 1019 | 5.60 × 1018 | 4.33 × 1019 | 5.06 × 1019 | 4.94 × 1019 |
21 | NOx | J/year | ** | - | 1.60 × 1020 | 1.53 × 1020 | 1.42 × 1020 | 1.37 × 1019 | 1.06 × 1020 | 1.27 × 1020 | 1.18 × 1020 |
22 | Industrial dust | J/year | ** | - | 4.50 × 1019 | 2.86 × 1019 | 2.73 × 1019 | 2.63 × 1019 | 2.76 × 1019 | 5.73 × 1019 | 5.34 × 1019 |
23 | Hexavalent chromium | J/year | ** | - | 2.35 × 1017 | 2.06 × 1017 | 3.53 × 1017 | 7.64 × 1017 | 1.41 × 1018 | 9.99 × 1017 | 8.23 × 1017 |
Emergy of the ecological losses due to the emissions (E3) | |||||||||||
24 | SO2 | J/year | ** | - | 1.10 × 1019 | 1.06 × 1019 | 9.82 × 1018 | 9.49 × 1017 | 7.33 × 1018 | 8.58 × 1018 | 8.36 × 1018 |
25 | NOx | J/year | ** | - | 9.15 × 1019 | 8.77 × 1019 | 8.14 × 1019 | 7.87 × 1019 | 6.08 × 1019 | 7.30 × 1019 | 6.76 × 1019 |
Emergy of the land occupation caused by the emissions (E4) | |||||||||||
26 | Solid wastes | J/year | ** | - | 2.84 × 1016 | 1.82 × 1016 | 2.45 × 1016 | 3.09 × 1016 | 5.27 × 1015 | 9.35 × 1015 | 1.91 × 1016 |
Emergy Flows | Value (seJ/year) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | |
R | 2.71 × 1023 | 3.16 × 1023 | 3.28 × 1023 | 3.00 × 1023 | 3.46 × 1023 | 2.55 × 1023 | 3.66 × 1023 |
N | 1.08 × 1021 | 1.06 × 1021 | 1.06 × 1021 | 1.05 × 1021 | 1.04 × 1021 | 1.03 × 1021 | 1.01 × 1021 |
F | 1.10 × 1023 | 1.20 × 1023 | 1.40 × 1023 | 1.63 × 1023 | 1.77 × 1023 | 1.79 × 1023 | 1.91 × 1023 |
E1 | 5.16 × 1021 | 5.89 × 1021 | 7.13 × 1021 | 6.01 × 1021 | 5.84 × 1021 | 6.45 × 1021 | 7.16 × 1021 |
E2 | 2.70 × 1020 | 2.44 × 1020 | 2.28 × 1020 | 4.64 × 1019 | 1.78 × 1020 | 2.36 × 1020 | 2.22 × 1020 |
E3 | 1.03 × 1020 | 9.83 × 1019 | 9.12 × 1019 | 7.96 × 1019 | 6.81 × 1019 | 8.16 × 1019 | 7.60 × 1019 |
E4 | 2.84 × 1016 | 1.82 × 1016 | 2.45 × 1016 | 3.09 × 1016 | 5.27 × 1015 | 9.35 × 1015 | 1.91 × 1016 |
E | 5.53 × 1021 | 6.23 × 1021 | 7.45 × 1021 | 6.14 × 1021 | 6.08 × 1021 | 6.77 × 1021 | 7.46 × 1021 |
U | 3.88 × 1023 | 4.44 × 1023 | 4.76 × 1023 | 4.70 × 1023 | 5.30 × 1023 | 4.42 × 1023 | 5.65 × 1023 |
Index | Value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | |
Environment loading ratio | 0.43 | 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.57 | 0.53 | 0.73 | 0.54 |
Environmental potential | 0.71 | 0.72 | 0.70 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 0.59 | 0.66 |
Ecological cost per GDP (seJ/$) | 9.45 × 109 | 7.26 × 109 | 5.27 × 109 | 1.86 × 109 | 3.01 × 109 | 3.20 × 109 | 2.53 × 109 |
Emissions impact per energy consumption | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.04 |
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Chai, J.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, H. Integrated Evaluation of Coupling Coordination for Land Use Change and Ecological Security: A Case Study in Wuhan City of Hubei Province, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111435
Chai J, Wang Z, Zhang H. Integrated Evaluation of Coupling Coordination for Land Use Change and Ecological Security: A Case Study in Wuhan City of Hubei Province, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(11):1435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111435
Chicago/Turabian StyleChai, Ji, Zhanqi Wang, and Hongwei Zhang. 2017. "Integrated Evaluation of Coupling Coordination for Land Use Change and Ecological Security: A Case Study in Wuhan City of Hubei Province, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 11: 1435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111435