PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Nursery Schools in Upper Silesia, Poland: Trace Elements Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Sampling Sites and Buildings
2.2. Sampling Method
2.3. Analytical Method
2.4. Factor Analysis and Source Identification
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Mass Concentrations
3.2. Trace Element Concentrations
Trace Elements | Winter | Spring | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban ( N = 19) | Rural ( N = 25) | Urban ( N = 19) | Rural ( N = 21) | |||||||||||||
Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | |
As | 6.60 | 4.61 | 3.05 | 5.74 | 4.93 | 2.89 | 1.97 | 2.04 | 0.16 * | 0.11 | 0.08 * | 0.08 | 1.52 | 0.98 | 0.35 * | 0.44 |
Cd | 13.26 | 2.96 | 6.48 | 1.88 | 15.95 | 2.08 | 8.04 | 1.01 | 17.92 | 2.66 | 9.02 | 2.49 | 18.57 | 1.36 | 9.91 | 2.90 |
Cr | 50.58 | 47.61 | 7.79 | 3.17 | 70.16 | 31.04 | 25.65 | 17.01 | 244.62 | 79.12 | 128.20 | 68.27 | 448.32 | 23.22 | 244.28 | 65.03 |
Cu | 25.23 | 12.62 | 11.43 | 15.13 | 20.06 | 4.71 | 7.95 | 4.44 | 24.23 | 27.82 | 5.14 | 3.40 | 6.61 | 3.36 | 1.40 | 1.50 |
Fe | 442.75 | 154.36 | 258.47 | 281.61 | 508.94 | 164.61 | 250.23 | 68.53 | 437.15 | 229.55 | 295.06 | 242.40 | 342.98 | 142.90 | 133.07 | 101.00 |
Mn | 23.17 | 8.73 | 10.04 | 5.09 | 33.28 | 14.82 | 14.14 | 2.14 | 23.68 | 4.98 | 12.37 | 4.61 | 21.26 | 7.24 | 11.07 | 2.20 |
Ni | 22.73 | 17.37 | 8.24 | 4.63 | 15.43 | 10.42 | 2.10 | 1.73 | 27.91 | 28.45 | 3.55 | 2.10 | 11.22 | 7.78 | 7.31 | 8.37 |
Pb | 24.15 | 20.85 | 29.82 | 21.76 | 48.41 | 5.55 | 50.32 | 11.97 | 36.35 | 25.08 | 26.65 | 12.30 | 16.30 | 8.36 | 14.59 | 13.43 |
Sb | 1.44 | 1.82 | 0.25 * | 0.07 | 3.45 | 1.45 | 0.41 * | 0.32 | 1.21 | 0.37 | 0.35 * | 0.17 | 0.39 * | 0.22 | 0.26 * | 0.15 |
Se | 1.45 | 2.01 | 0.51 * | 0.45 | 0.38 * | 0.29 | 0.73 * | 0.69 | 1.12 | 0.56 | 0.42 * | 0.31 | 0.62 * | 0.44 | 0.64 * | 0.47 |
Zn | 226.56 | 62.14 | 97.42 | 61.51 | 243.40 | 24.70 | 155.15 | 28.54 | 212.13 | 45.14 | 90.19 | 20.84 | 174.82 | 18.72 | 56.16 | 22.07 |
Total | 837.91 | 335.08 | 433.49 | 401.04 | 964.40 | 262.55 | 516.69 | 138.42 | 1 026.48 | 443.82 | 571.02 | 356.98 | 1 042.62 | 214.57 | 479.04 | 217.55 |
3.3. Enrichment Factor Analysis
- (1)
- As, Cu, Pb and Zn for coal combustion and vehicle emission;
- (2)
- Fe and Mn for crustal origin (according to low EF);
- (3)
- Cd and Cr for soils contaminated by sewage sludge dumping (according to higher EFs during spring);
- (4)
- Ni, Sb and Se for fossil fuel combustion (carbon and fuel oil).
3.4. Principal Component Analysis
Trace Elements | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 |
---|---|---|---|
As | 0.888 | ||
Cd | 0.889 | 0.301 | |
Cr | −0.311 | 0.872 | |
Cu | 0.920 | −0.222 | |
Fe | 0.831 | ||
Mn | 0.734 | 0.317 | |
Ni | 0.518 | −0.363 | |
Pb | 0.694 | 0.455 | |
Sb | 0.880 | ||
Se | 0.230 | 0.742 | |
Zn | 0.757 | −0.241 | 0.476 |
% variance | 37.2 | 18.6 | 19.5 |
4. Conclusions
- -
- Indoor PM2.5 concentrations exceeded the WHO guidelines regardless of the season and location. Outdoor PM2.5 concentrations were significantly lower than those indoors; however, they met the WHO guidelines only in spring at rural sites.
- -
- An anthropogenic origin revealed most trace elements; however, the most enriched (EF > 100) elements in indoor PM2.5 were Cd, Se, Sb, Zn and—additionally—Cr in spring.
- -
- The PCA results show that anthropogenic emissions are the most important sources of trace elements in outdoor PM2.5 aerosols. The highest relative contribution to the sample variance was 37.2% and included As, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Trace Elements | Winter | Spring | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban( N = 19) | Rural( N = 25) | Urban( N = 19) | Rural( N = 21) | |||||||||||||
Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | Indoor | SD | Outdoor | SD | |
As | 191.63 | 99.15 | 48.61 | 27.72 | 96.12 | 41.10 | 30.97 | 12.76 | 4.70 | 2.71 | 2.94 | 1.25 | 52.80 | 28.38 | 16.45 | 11.64 |
Cd | 518.78 | 181.71 | 187.02 | 64.01 | 924.31 | 268.56 | 159.31 | 56.33 | 754.69 | 147.10 | 306.58 | 109.21 | 1027.82 | 291.24 | 493.12 | 136.50 |
Cr | 1612.29 | 444.54 | 197.74 | 78.14 | 2508.63 | 1063.52 | 539.49 | 272.60 | 10,117.01 | 3588.64 | 4352.67 | 1298.21 | 25,080.53 | 10,706.97 | 12,096.61 | 2916.78 |
Cu | 672.39 | 176.23 | 210.49 | 113.59 | 395.51 | 124.85 | 136.88 | 44.65 | 1123.43 | 814.24 | 159.13 | 53.92 | 175.69 | 86.86 | 64.73 | 21.53 |
Fe | 14,433.14 | 2149.43 | 5520.24 | 1572.40 | 21,177.97 | 12,938.67 | 4879.95 | 1831.58 | 15,863.28 | 6212.33 | 7551.46 | 2217.47 | 14,629.79 | 1752.02 | 6199.13 | 1980.55 |
Mn | 773.80 | 243.02 | 266.91 | 154.34 | 1204.20 | 551.22 | 269.26 | 59.32 | 874.08 | 232.22 | 374.62 | 81.60 | 981.26 | 276.63 | 542.78 | 45.19 |
Ni | 786.04 | 283.07 | 244.89 | 157.16 | 549.41 | 198.77 | 40.56 | 28.01 | 1349.81 | 703.23 | 106.78 | 63.87 | 451.67 | 280.11 | 355.26 | 188.04 |
Pb | 605.94 | 292.59 | 659.46 | 206.78 | 1063.69 | 379.66 | 967.59 | 254.10 | 1339.55 | 478.26 | 881.83 | 496.96 | 691.58 | 336.31 | 702.62 | 299.85 |
Sb | 29.88 | 14.21 | 7.32 | 3.16 | 86.59 | 40.09 | 7.68 | 5.51 | 30.42 | 10.10 | 11.26 | 5.06 | 12.90 | 4.67 | 12.54 | 6.31 |
Se | 39.63 | 22.56 | 12.82 | 6.64 | 9.22 | 5.77 | 14.87 | 7.73 | 36.96 | 14.42 | 11.31 | 3.68 | 18.47 | 6.61 | 32.77 | 14.39 |
Zn | 6646.99 | 3451.87 | 2274.36 | 598.42 | 7447.87 | 1278.67 | 2497.93 | 289.89 | 5769.98 | 752.12 | 2875.07 | 874.32 | 6002.56 | 1807.12 | 2745.78 | 915.78 |
Total | 26,310.48 | 8788.39 | 9629.86 | 5208.36 | 35,463.52 | 25,090.88 | 9544.49 | 3188.48 | 37,263.91 | 17,070.39 | 16,633.63 | 9437.53 | 49,125.07 | 16,986.94 | 23,261.78 | 9116.56 |
Location | in | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
in | PM2.5 | As | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Ni | Pb | Sb | Se | Zn | |
PM2.5 | 1.00 | 0.12 | 0.09 | −0.30 | 0.19 | 0.75 | 0.62 | −0.07 | 0.39 | 0.50 | 0.28 | 0.47 | |
As | 1.00 | − 0.63 | − 0.54 | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.46 | 0.22 | 0.62 | ||
Cd | 1.00 | 0.61 | −0.45 | 0.03 | 0.27 | −0.33 | −0.30 | −0.10 | −0.02 | −0.28 | |||
Cr | 1.00 | − 0.53 | −0.27 | −0.25 | −0.19 | − 0.54 | − 0.60 | −0.14 | − 0.51 | ||||
Cu | 1.00 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.77 | 0.67 | 0.23 | 0.16 | 0.05 | |||||
Fe | 1.00 | 0.75 | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0.32 | 0.20 | 0.50 | ||||||
Mn | 1.00 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.46 | −0.14 | 0.30 | |||||||
Ni | 1.00 | 0.30 | −0.15 | −0.19 | −0.09 | ||||||||
Pb | 1.00 | 0.57 | 0.17 | 0.28 | |||||||||
Sb | 1.00 | 0.26 | 0.50 | ||||||||||
Se | 1.00 | 0.37 | |||||||||||
Zn | 1.00 | ||||||||||||
out | |||||||||||||
out | PM2.5 | 1.00 | 0.61 | −0.27 | − 0.59 | 0.62 | 0.55 | 0.57 | −0.18 | 0.76 | −0.05 | 0.01 | 0.80 |
As | 1.00 | −0.06 | −0.33 | 0.90 | 0.57 | 0.46 | −0.15 | 0.57 | −0.04 | 0.21 | 0.61 | ||
Cd | 1.00 | 0.74 | −0.26 | −0.17 | 0.03 | 0.24 | −0.05 | 0.31 | 0.32 | −0.07 | |||
Cr | 1.00 | − 0.47 | −0.31 | −0.17 | 0.32 | − 0.49 | −0.02 | 0.02 | − 0.52 | ||||
Cu | 1.00 | 0.76 | 0.57 | −0.23 | 0.65 | 0.10 | 0.26 | 0.72 | |||||
Fe | 1.00 | 0.82 | −0.25 | 0.48 | 0.15 | 0.22 | 0.60 | ||||||
Mn | 1.00 | −0.36 | 0.53 | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.67 | |||||||
Ni | 1.00 | −0.14 | −0.13 | −0.17 | −0.26 | ||||||||
Pb | 1.00 | 0.38 | 0.39 | 0.93 | |||||||||
Sb | 1.00 | 0.55 | 0.41 | ||||||||||
Se | 1.00 | 0.39 | |||||||||||
Zn | 1.00 | ||||||||||||
Location | out | ||||||||||||
in | PM2.5 | As | Cd | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Ni | Pb | Sb | Se | Zn | |
PM2.5 | 0.54 | 0.38 | −0.23 | −0.42 | 0.39 | 0.45 | 0.40 | − 0.58 | 0.46 | −0.12 | 0.13 | 0.49 | |
As | 0.34 | − 0.53 | − 0.55 | 0.42 | 0.12 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.30 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.35 | ||
Cd | 0.63 | 0.62 | −0.35 | 0.01 | 0.23 | −0.22 | −0.35 | −0.07 | 0.02 | −0.30 | |||
Cr | 0.93 | − 0.53 | −0.32 | −0.21 | 0.15 | − 0.64 | −0.17 | −0.09 | − 0.65 | ||||
Cu | 0.42 | 0.19 | −0.02 | −0.11 | 0.35 | −0.14 | −0.15 | 0.24 | |||||
Fe | 0.48 | 0.30 | −0.31 | 0.23 | −0.08 | −0.13 | 0.22 | ||||||
Mn | 0.20 | −0.37 | 0.04 | −0.10 | −0.24 | 0.12 | |||||||
Ni | 0.02 | −0.09 | −0.29 | − 0.49 | −0.21 | ||||||||
Pb | 0.82 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.77 | |||||||||
Sb | 0.48 | 0.37 | 0.80 | ||||||||||
Se | 0.26 | 0.32 | |||||||||||
Zn | 0.51 |
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Mainka, A.; Zajusz-Zubek, E.; Kaczmarek, K. PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Nursery Schools in Upper Silesia, Poland: Trace Elements Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 7990-8008. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707990
Mainka A, Zajusz-Zubek E, Kaczmarek K. PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Nursery Schools in Upper Silesia, Poland: Trace Elements Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(7):7990-8008. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707990
Chicago/Turabian StyleMainka, Anna, Elwira Zajusz-Zubek, and Konrad Kaczmarek. 2015. "PM2.5 in Urban and Rural Nursery Schools in Upper Silesia, Poland: Trace Elements Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 7: 7990-8008. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707990