Role of Metabolic Genes in Blood Arsenic Concentrations of Jamaican Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. General Description
2.2. Assessment of Arsenic Exposures
2.3. Genetic Analysis
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Variables | Categories | ASD Case (n = 100) N (%) | TD Control (n = 100) N (%) | p-value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child’s sex | Male | 85 (85.0) | 85 (85.0) | 1.00 |
Child’s age (months) | Age < 48 | 16 (16.0) | 13 (13.0) | 0.64 |
48 ≤ age < 72 | 46 (46.0) | 47 (47.0) | ||
Age ≥ 72 | 38 (38.0) | 40 (40.0) | ||
Child’s race | Afro-Caribbean | 93 (93.0) | 99 (99.0) | 0.25 |
Maternal age a (at child’s birth) | <35 years | 76 (76.0) | 84 (88.4) | 0.02 |
≥35 years | 24 (24.0) | 11 (11.6) | ||
Paternal age b (at child’s birth) | <35 years | 47 (48.5) | 66 (71.7) | <0.01 |
≥35 years | 50 (51.5) | 26 (28.3) | ||
Maternal race | Afro-Caribbean | 93 (93.0) | 99 (99.0) | 0.25 |
Paternal race c | Afro-Caribbean | 94 (94.9) | 99 (99.0) | 0.67 |
Maternal education d (at child’s birth) | Up to high school † | 53 (53.0) | 75 (76.5) | <0.01 |
Beyond high school †† | 47 (47.0) | 23 (23.5) | ||
Paternal education e (at child’s birth) | Up to high school † | 53 (54.6) | 85 (87.6) | <0.01 |
Beyond high school †† | 44 (45.4) | 12 (12.4) | ||
Socioeconomic status (SES) | Car ownership | 68 (68.0) | 37 (37.0) | <0.01 |
GSTP1 | Ile/Ile | 30 (30.0) | 25 (25.0) | 0.56 |
Ile/Val | 52 (52.0) | 52 (52.0) | ||
Val/Val | 18 (18.0) | 23 (23.0) | ||
GSTM1 | DD f | 27 (27.0) | 26 (26.0) | 0.87 |
I/I or I/D g | 73 (73.0) | 74 (74.0) | ||
GSTT1 | DD f | 30 (30.0) | 22 (22.0) | 0.21 |
I/I or I/D g | 70 (70.0) | 78 (78.0) |
Exposure variables | Category | ASD Case N (%) | TD Control N (%) | Matched OR (MOR) | 95% CI for MOR | p-value d | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Source of drinking water a | Piped water | 94 (94.0) | 95 (96.0) | 0.67 | (0.19, 2.36) | 0.53 | |
Source of water for cooking b | Piped water | 94 (94.0) | 95 (96.0) | 0.67 | (0.19, 2.36) | 0.53 | |
Fruits and vegetables consumption c | Root vegetables | A. Yam, sweet potato, or dasheen | 73 (73.0) | 82 (82.8) | 0.52 | (0.25, 1.07) | 0.08 |
B. Carrot or pumpkin | 86 (86.0) | 98 (99.0) | 0.08 | (0.01, 0.59) | 0.01 | ||
Leafy vegetables | A. Lettuce | 47 (47.0) | 62 (62.6) | 0.57 | (0.33, 0.97) | 0.04 | |
B. Callaloo, broccoli, or pakchoi | 72 (72.0) | 94 (94.9) | 0.18 | (0.07, 0.46) | <0.01 | ||
C. Cabbage | 66 (66.0) | 94 (94.9) | 0.15 | (0.06, 0.38) | <0.01 | ||
Fruits | Tomatoes | 62 (62.0) | 85 (85.9) | 0.23 | (0.10, 0.51) | <0.01 | |
Ackee | 58 (58.0) | 92 (92.9) | 0.06 | (0.01, 0.23) | <0.01 | ||
Avocado | 29 (29.0) | 68 (68.7) | 0.19 | (0.09, 0.38) | <0.01 | ||
Green banana | 67 (67.0) | 90 (90.9) | 0.27 | (0.13, 0.57) | <0.01 | ||
Fried plantains | 70 (70.0) | 89 (89.9) | 0.17 | (0.06, 0.48) | <0.01 | ||
Seafood consumption | Ate salt water fish | 77 (77.0) | 89 (89.0) | 0.40 | (0.18, 0.91) | 0.03 | |
Ate fresh water fish (Pond fish, Tilapia) | 46 (46.0) | 52 (52.0) | 0.75 | (0.41, 1.38) | 0.36 | ||
Ate sardine, mackerel (Canned fish) | 75 (75.0) | 92 (92.0) | 0.26 | (0.11, 0.64) | <0.01 | ||
Ate tuna (Canned fish) | 31 (31.0) | 44 (44.0) | 0.55 | (0.30, 1.02) | 0.06 | ||
Ate salted fish (Pickled mackerel) | 70 (70.0) | 93 (93.0) | 0.15 | (0.05, 0.42) | <0.01 | ||
Ate shellfish (Lobsters, Crabs) | 7 (7.0) | 14 (14.0) | 0.42 | (0.15, 1.18) | 0.10 | ||
Ate shrimp | 19 (19.0) | 27 (27.0) | 0.62 | (0.31, 1.24) | 0.17 |
Exposure variables | Category | Yes | No | p-value g | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean As * (μg/L) | N | Mean As * (μg/L) | N | ||||
Socioeconomic status | Own a car | 3.64 | 105 | 3.52 | 95 | 0.58 | |
Maternal age a (at child’s birth) | ≥35 years | 3.71 | 35 | 3.54 | 160 | 0.56 | |
Parental education levels b (at child’s birth) | At least one of the parents had education beyond high school | 3.57 | 94 | 3.61 | 98 | 0.84 | |
Source of drinking water c | Piped water | 3.52 | 189 | 4.83 | 10 | 0.02 | |
Fruits and vegetables consumption d | Root vegetables | A. Yam, sweet potato, or dasheen | 3.73 | 155 | 3.09 | 44 | 0.01 |
B. Carrot or pumpkin | 3.61 | 184 | 3.28 | 15 | 0.41 | ||
Leafy vegetables | A. Lettuce | 3.56 | 109 | 3.61 | 90 | 0.83 | |
B. Callaloo, broccoli, or pak choi | 3.61 | 166 | 3.42 | 33 | 0.47 | ||
C. Cabbage | 3.66 | 160 | 3.27 | 39 | 0.14 | ||
Legumes | String beans | 3.61 | 75 | 3.57 | 124 | 0.84 | |
Fruits | Tomatoes | 3.61 | 147 | 3.49 | 52 | 0.65 | |
Ackee | 3.68 | 150 | 3.31 | 49 | 0.19 | ||
Avocado | 3.86 | 97 | 3.34 | 102 | 0.02 | ||
Seafood consumption | High seafood consumption (more than 6 meals per week) | 3.97 | 71 | 3.39 | 129 | 0.01 | |
Frequency of seafood meals consumed weekly | NA | - | NA | - | 0.06 | ||
Ate salt water fish | 3.69 | 166 | 3.11 | 34 | 0.03 | ||
Ate fresh water fish (pond fish, tilapia) | 3.57 | 98 | 3.60 | 102 | 0.88 | ||
Ate sardine, mackerel (canned fish) | 3.64 | 167 | 3.30 | 33 | 0.22 | ||
Ate tuna (canned fish) | 3.83 | 75 | 3.44 | 125 | 0.09 | ||
Ate salted fish (pickled mackerel) | 3.70 | 163 | 3.12 | 37 | 0.03 | ||
Ate shellfish (lobsters, crabs) | 3.71 | 21 | 3.57 | 179 | 0.71 | ||
Ate shrimp | 3.42 | 46 | 3.64 | 154 | 0.39 | ||
Genes | GSTT1 (I*) e | 3.52 | 148 | 3.78 | 52 | 0.28 | |
GSTM1 (I*) e | 3.59 | 147 | 3.57 | 53 | 0.95 | ||
GSTP1 (Ile/Ile) f | 3.67 | 55 | 3.55 | 145 | 0.64 | ||
GSTP1 (Val/Val) f | 3.26 | 41 | 3.67 | 159 | 0.11 | ||
GSTP1 (Ile/Val) f | 3.67 | 104 | 3.49 | 96 | 0.39 |
Additive Models | ASD Cases Mean As(μg/L) | TD Controls Mean As (μg/L) | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
65 matched pairs | Unadjusted | 4.03 | 4.48 | <0.01 |
Adjusted a | 4.36 | 4.65 | 0.23 | |
100 matched pairs | Unadjusted | 3.49 | 3.68 | 0.20 |
Adjusted a | 3.57 | 3.46 | 0.64 |
Models | Gene | (Column A) Genotypes compared | Referent Genotypes | Group | Unadjusted | Adjusted c | P d | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean As (μg/L) of children with genotypes in Column A * | Mean As (μg/L) of children with referent genotypes* | P d | Mean As (μg/L) of children with genotypes in Column A * | Mean As (μg/L) of children with referent genotypes * | ||||||
Full a | GSTP1 | Ile/Ile | Ile/Val | TD Control | 3.82 | 3.90 | 0.83 | 3.72 | 3.80 | 0.84 |
GSTP1 | Ile/Ile | Ile/Val | ASD Case | 3.55 | 3.46 | 0.79 | 4.04 | 3.59 | 0.27 | |
GSTP1 | Ile/Ile | Val/Val | TD Control | 3.82 | 3.10 | 0.08 | 3.72 | 2.72 | 0.02 | |
GSTP1 | Ile/Ile | Val/Val | ASD Case | 3.55 | 3.50 | 0.91 | 4.04 | 3.33 | 0.14 | |
GSTP1 | Ile/Val | Val/Val | TD Control | 3.90 | 3.10 | 0.03 | 3.80 | 2.72 | <0.01 | |
GSTP1 | Ile/Val | Val/Val | ASD Case | 3.46 | 3.50 | 0.92 | 3.59 | 3.33 | 0.52 | |
Recessive b | GSTP1REC | Ile/Ile or Ile/Val | Val/Val | TD Control | 3.87 | 3.10 | 0.02 | 3.67 | 2.69 | <0.01 |
GSTP1REC | Ile/Ile or Ile/Val | Val/Val | ASD Case | 3.49 | 3.49 | 0.99 | 3.71 | 3.29 | 0.29 |
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Files
Supplementary File 1Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Sohel, N.; Persson, L.A.; Rahman, M.; Streatfield, P.K.; Yunus, M.; Ekstrom, E.C.; Vahter, M. Arsenic in drinking water and adult mortality: A population-based cohort study in rural Bangladesh. Epidemiology 2009, 20, 824–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wasserman, G.A.; Liu, X.; Parvez, F.; Ahsan, H.; Factor-Litvak, P.; van Geen, A.; Slavkovich, V.; LoIacono, N.J.; Cheng, Z.; Hussain, I.; et al. Water arsenic exposure and children’s intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112, 1329–1333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Some drinking-water disinfectants and contaminants, including Arsenic. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization: Lyon, France, 2004; Volume 84. [Google Scholar]
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Arsenic; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR): Atlanta, GA, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, C.L.; Liu, Q.; Relling, M.V. Simultaneous characterization of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 polymorphisms by polymerase chain reaction in American whites and blacks. Pharmacogenetics 1996, 6, 187–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agusa, T.; Iwata, H.; Fujihara, J.; Kunito, T.; Takeshita, H.; Minh, T.B.; Trang, P.T.; Viet, P.H.; Tanabe, S. Genetic polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferase (GST) superfamily and arsenic metabolism in residents of the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol 2010, 242, 352–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- States, J.C.; Srivastava, S.; Chen, Y.; Barchowsky, A. Arsenic and cardiovascular disease. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 107, 312–323. [Google Scholar]
- Del Razo, L.M.; Garcia-Vargas, G.G.; Valenzuela, O.L.; Castellanos, E.H.; Sanchez-Pena, L.C.; Currier, J.M.; Drobna, Z.; Loomis, D.; Styblo, M. Exposure to arsenic in drinking water is associated with increased prevalence of diabetes: A cross-sectional study in the Zimapan and Lagunera regions in Mexico. Environ. Health 2011, 10, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gribble, M.O.; Howard, B.V.; Umans, J.G.; Shara, N.M.; Francesconi, K.A.; Goessler, W.; Crainiceanu, C.M.; Silbergeld, E.K.; Guallar, E.; Navas-Acien, A. Arsenic exposure, diabetes prevalence, and diabetes control in the Strong Heart Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 176, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Navas-Acien, A.; Silbergeld, E.K.; Streeter, R.A.; Clark, J.M.; Burke, T.A.; Guallar, E. Arsenic exposure and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of the experimental and epidemiological evidence. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 641–648. [Google Scholar]
- Navas-Acien, A.; Silbergeld, E.K.; Pastor-Barriuso, R.; Guallar, E. Arsenic exposure and prevalence of type 2 diabetes in US adults. JAMA 2008, 300, 814–822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dastgiri, S.; Mosaferi, M.; Fizi, M.A.; Olfati, N.; Zolali, S.; Pouladi, N.; Azarfam, P. Arsenic exposure, dermatological lesions, hypertension, and chromosomal abnormalities among people in a rural community of northwest Iran. J. Health Popul. Nutr. 2010, 28, 14–22. [Google Scholar]
- Borchers, A.; Teuber, S.S.; Keen, C.L.; Gershwin, M.E. Food safety. Clin Rev. Allergy Immunol. 2010, 39, 95–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grandjean, P.; Landrigan, P.J. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 2006, 368, 2167–2178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abernathy, C.O.; Thomas, D.J.; Calderon, R.L. Health effects and risk assessment of arsenic. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 1536S–1538S. [Google Scholar]
- Fido, A.; Al-Saad, S. Toxic trace elements in the hair of children with autism. Autism 2005, 9, 290–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kern, J.K.; Grannemann, B.D.; Trivedi, M.H.; Adams, J.B. Sulfhydryl-reactive metals in autism. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2007, 70, 715–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ayadhi, L.Y. Heavy metals and trace elements in hair samples of autistic children in central Saudi Arabia. Neurosciences (Riyadh) 2005, 10, 213–218. [Google Scholar]
- Blaurock-Busch, E.; Amin, O.R.; Rabah, T. Heavy metals and trace elements in hair and urine of a sample of arab children with autistic spectrum disorder. Maedica (Buchar) 2011, 6, 247–257. [Google Scholar]
- Blaurock-Busch, E.; Amin, O.R.; Dessoki, H.H.; Rabah, T. Toxic metals and essential elements in hair and severity of symptoms among children with autism. Maedica (Buchar) 2012, 7, 38–48. [Google Scholar]
- Obrenovich, M.E.; Shamberger, R.J.; Lonsdale, D. Altered heavy metals and transketolase found in autistic spectrum disorder. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2011, 144, 475–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rahbar, M.H.; Samms-Vaughan, M.; Ardjomand-Hessabi, M.; Loveland, K.A.; Dickerson, A.S.; Chen, Z.; Bressler, J.; Shakespeare-Pellington, S.; Grove, M.L.; Bloom, K.; et al. The role of drinking water sources, consumption of vegetables and seafood in relation to blood arsenic concentrations of Jamaican children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 433C, 362–370. [Google Scholar]
- Adams, J.B.; Audhya, T.; McDonough-Means, S.; Rubin, R.A.; Quig, D.; Geis, E.; Gehn, E.; Loresto, M.; Mitchell, J.; Atwood, S.; et al. Toxicological status of children with autism vs. neurotypical children and the association with autism severity. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2013, 151, 171–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, J.B.; Holloway, C.E.; George, F.; Quig, D. Analyses of toxic metals and essential minerals in the hair of Arizona children with autism and associated conditions, and their mothers. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2006, 110, 193–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gundacker, C.; Komarnicki, G.; Jagiello, P.; Gencikova, A.; Dahmen, N.; Wittmann, K.J.; Gencik, M. Glutathione-S-transferase polymorphism, metallothionein expression, and mercury levels among students in Austria. Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 385, 37–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kitchin, K.T. Recent advances in arsenic carcinogenesis: Modes of action, animal model systems, and methylated arsenic metabolites. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2001, 172, 249–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aposhian, H.V.; Aposhian, M.M. Arsenic toxicology: Five questions. Chem Res. Toxicol. 2006, 19, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flora, S.J. Arsenic-induced oxidative stress and its reversibility following combined administration of N-acetylcysteine and meso 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid in rats. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 1999, 26, 865–869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, W.; Wang, W.; Zhou, M.; Chen, S.; Zhang, X. Association of glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms (GSTM1 and GSTT1) with primary open-angle glaucoma: An evidence-based meta-analysis. Gene 2013, 526, 80–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pi, J.; Yamauchi, H.; Kumagai, Y.; Sun, G.; Yoshida, T.; Aikawa, H.; Hopenhayn-Rich, C.; Shimojo, N. Evidence for induction of oxidative stress caused by chronic exposure of Chinese residents to arsenic contained in drinking water. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110, 331–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pi, J.; Horiguchi, S.; Sun, Y.; Nikaido, M.; Shimojo, N.; Hayashi, T.; Yamauchi, H.; Itoh, K.; Yamamoto, M.; Sun, G.; et al. A potential mechanism for the impairment of nitric oxide formation caused by prolonged oral exposure to arsenate in rabbits. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2003, 35, 102–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kitchin, K.T.; Ahmad, S. Oxidative stress as a possible mode of action for arsenic carcinogenesis. Toxicol. Lett. 2003, 137, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Challenger, F. Biological methylation. Chem. Rev. 1945, 36, 315–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cullen, W.R.; Reimer, K.J. Arsenic speciation in the environment. Chem. Rev. 1989, 89, 713–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, T.; Kobayashi, Y.; Cui, X.; Hirano, S. A new metabolic pathway of arsenite: Arsenic-glutathione complexes are substrates for human arsenic methyltransferase Cyt19. Arch. Toxicol. 2005, 79, 183–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naranmandura, H.; Suzuki, N.; Suzuki, K.T. Trivalent arsenicals are bound to proteins during reductive methylation. Chem Res. Toxicol. 2006, 19, 1010–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seidegard, J.; Ekstrom, G. The role of human glutathione transferases and epoxide hydrolases in the metabolism of xenobiotics. Environ. Health Perspect. 1997, 105 (Suppl. 4), 791–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Josephy, P.D. Genetic variations in human glutathione transferase enzymes: Significance for pharmacology and toxicology. Hum. Genomics Proteomics 2010, 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodrigues, E.G.; Kile, M.; Hoffman, E.; Quamruzzaman, Q.; Rahman, M.; Mahiuddin, G.; Hsueh, Y.; Christiani, D.C. GSTO and AS3MT genetic polymorphisms and differences in urinary arsenic concentrations among residents in Bangladesh. Biomarkers 2012, 17, 240–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rossignol, D.A.; Genuis, S.J.; Frye, R.E. Environmental toxicants and autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review. Transl. Psychiatr. 2014, 4, e360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klautau-Guimarães, M.N.; D’Ascenção, R.; Caldart, F.A.; Grisolia, C.K.; de Souza, J.R.; Barbosa, A.C.; Cordeiro, C.M. T.; Ferrari, I. Analysis of genetic susceptibility to mercury contamination evaluated through molecular biomarkers in at-risk Amazon Amerindian populations. Genet. Mol. Biol. 2005, 28, 827–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Westphal, G.A.; Schnuch, A.; Schulz, T.G.; Reich, K.; Aberer, W.; Brasch, J.; Koch, P.; Wessbecher, R.; Szliska, C.; Bauer, A.; et al. Homozygous gene deletions of the glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 are associated with thimerosal sensitization. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2000, 73, 384–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsai, P.C.; Huang, W.; Lee, Y.C.; Chan, S.H.; Guo, Y.L. Genetic polymorphisms in CYP1A1 and GSTM1 predispose humans to PCBs/PCDFs-induced skin lesions. Chemosphere 2006, 63, 1410–1418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hung, R.J.; Boffetta, P.; Brennan, P.; Malaveille, C.; Hautefeuille, A.; Donato, F.; Gelatti, U.; Spaliviero, M.; Placidi, D.; Carta, A.; et al. GST, NAT, SULT1A1, CYP1B1 genetic polymorphisms, interactions with environmental exposures and bladder cancer risk in a high-risk population. Int. J. Cancer 2004, 110, 598–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, S.J.; Melnyk, S.; Jernigan, S.; Cleves, M.A.; Halsted, C.H.; Wong, D.H.; Cutler, P.; Bock, K.; Boris, M.; Bradstreet, J.J.; et al. Metabolic endophenotype and related genotypes are associated with oxidative stress in children with autism. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 2006, 141B, 947–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frustaci, A.; Neri, M.; Cesario, A.; Adams, J.B.; Domenici, E.; Dalla, B.B.; Bonassi, S. Oxidative stress-related biomarkers in autism: Systematic review and meta-analyses. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2012, 52, 2128–2141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, R.J.; Hansen, R.L.; Hartiala, J.; Allayee, H.; Schmidt, L.C.; Tancredi, D.J.; Tassone, F.; Hertz-Picciotto, I. Prenatal vitamins, one-carbon metabolism gene variants, and risk for autism. Epidemiology 2011, 22, 476–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, S.J.; Cutler, P.; Melnyk, S.; Jernigan, S.; Janak, L.; Gaylor, D.W.; Neubrander, J.A. Metabolic biomarkers of increased oxidative stress and impaired methylation capacity in children with autism. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80, 1611–1617. [Google Scholar]
- James, S.J.; Rose, S.; Melnyk, S.; Jernigan, S.; Blossom, S.; Pavliv, O.; Gaylor, D.W. Cellular and mitochondrial glutathione redox imbalance in lymphoblastoid cells derived from children with autism. FASEB J. 2009, 23, 2374–2383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melnyk, S.; Fuchs, G.J.; Schulz, E.; Lopez, M.; Kahler, S.G.; Fussell, J.J.; Bellando, J.; Pavliv, O.; Rose, S.; Seidel, L.; et al. Metabolic imbalance associated with methylation dysregulation and oxidative damage in children with autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2012, 42, 367–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lalor, G.C. Geochemical mapping in Jamaica. Environ. Geochem. Health 1996, 18, 89–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howe, A.; Fung, L.H.; Lalor, G.; Rattray, R.; Vutchkov, M. Elemental composition of Jamaican foods 1: A survey of five food crop categories. Environ. Geochem. Health 2005, 27, 19–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rahbar, M.H.; Samms-Vaughan, M.; Loveland, K.A.; Pearson, D.A.; Bressler, J.; Chen, Z.; Ardjomand-Hessabi, M.; Shakespeare-Pellington, S.; Grove, M.L.; Beecher, C.; et al. Maternal and paternal age are jointly associated with childhood autism in Jamaica. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2012, 42, 1928–1938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rahbar, M.H.; Samms-Vaughan, M.; Loveland, K.A.; Ardjomand-Hessabi, M.; Chen, Z.; Bressler, J.; Shakespeare-Pellington, S.; Grove, M.L.; Bloom, K.; Pearson, D.A.; et al. Seafood consumption and blood mercury concentrations in Jamaican children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Neurotox. Res. 2013, 23, 22–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition Text. Revision (DSM-IV-TR); American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.: Washington, DC, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Schopler, E.; Reichler, R.; deVellis, R.; Daly, K. Toward objective classification of childhood autism: Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 1980, 10, 91–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lord, C.; Risi, S.; Lambrecht, L.; Cook, E.H.; Leventhal, B.L.; DiLavore, P.C.; Pickles, A.; Rutter, M. The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic: A Standard Measure of Social and Communication Deficits Associated with the Spectrum of Autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2000, 30, 205–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rutter, M.; LeCouteur, A.; Lord, C. Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R); Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Rutter, M.; Bailey, A.; Lord, C. SCQ: The Social Communication Questionnaire. Manual; Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization (WHO). Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2nd ed.; Environmental Health Criteria 224: Geneva, Switzerland, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Wu, F.; Jasmine, F.; Kibriya, M.G.; Liu, M.; Wojcik, O.; Parvez, F.; Rahaman, R.; Roy, S.; Paul-Brutus, R.; Segers, S.; et al. Association between arsenic exposure from drinking water and plasma levels of cardiovascular markers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 175, 1252–1261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, M.; Chen, Y.; Ahsan, H.; Slavkovich, V.; van Geen, A.; Parvez, F.; Graziano, J. Blood arsenic as a biomarker of arsenic exposure: Results from a prospective study. Toxicology 2006, 225, 225–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dols, M.; Chartier, J.; Lem, P. Compatibility of the PUREGENE DNA Purification Kit with the Oragene Self-Collection Kit; DNA Genotek Inc.: Ottawa, Canada, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Li, R.; Boerwinkle, E.; Olshan, A.F.; Chambless, L.E.; Pankow, J.S.; Tyroler, H.A.; Bray, M.; Pittman, G.S.; Bell, D.A.; Heiss, G. Glutathione S-transferase genotype as a susceptibility factor in smoking-related coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 2000, 149, 451–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wei, B.; Zhou, Y.; Xu, Z.; Ruan, J.; Cheng, H.; Zhu, M.; Hu, Q.; Jin, K.; Yan, Z.; Zhou, D.; et al. GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and prostate cancer risk: Evidence from a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2013, 8, e71640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.L.; Tseng, H.S.; Kuo, W.H.; Yang, S.F.; Chen, D.R.; Tsai, H.T. Glutathione S-Transferase P1 (GSTP1) gene polymorphism increases age-related susceptibility to hepatocellular carcinoma. BMC Med. Genet. 2010, 11, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aynacioglu, A.S.; Nacak, M.; Filiz, A.; Ekinci, E.; Roots, I. Protective role of glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) Val105Val genotype in patients with bronchial asthma. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol 2004, 57, 213–217. [Google Scholar]
- Kleinbaum, D.G.; Klein, M. Logistic Regression: A Self-Learning Text; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Kumagai, Y.; Sumi, D. Arsenic: Signal transduction, transcription factor, and biotransformation involved in cellular response and toxicity. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2007, 47, 243–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Styblo, M.; Drobna, Z.; Jaspers, I.; Lin, S.; Thomas, D.J. The role of biomethylation in toxicity and carcinogenicity of arsenic: A research update. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110 (Suppl. 5), 767–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stamova, B.; Green, P.G.; Tian, Y.; Hertz-Picciotto, I.; Pessah, I.N.; Hansen, R.; Yang, X.; Teng, J.; Gregg, J.P.; Ashwood, P.; et al. Correlations between gene expression and mercury levels in blood of boys with and without autism. Neurotox. Res. 2011, 19, 31–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kile, M.L.; Houseman, E.A.; Baccarelli, A.A.; Quamruzzaman, Q.; Rahman, M.; Mostofa, G.; Cardenas, A.; Wright, R.O.; Christiani, D.C. Effect of prenatal arsenic exposure on DNA methylation and leukocyte subpopulations in cord blood. Epigenetics 2014, 9, 774–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reichard, J.F.; Puga, A. Effects of arsenic exposure on DNA methylation and epigenetic gene regulation. Epigenomics 2010, 2, 87–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siniscalco, D.; Cirillo, A.; Bradstreet, J.J.; Antonucci, N. Epigenetic findings in autism: New perspectives for therapy. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 4261–4273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Todorova, T.; Vuilleumier, S.; Kujumdzieva, A. Role of glutathione S-transferases and glutathione in arsenic and peroxide resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: A reverse genetic analysis approach. Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip. 2007, 21, 348–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCarty, K.M.; Chen, Y.C.; Quamruzzaman, Q.; Rahman, M.; Mahiuddin, G.; Hsueh, Y.M.; Su, L.; Smith, T.; Ryan, L.; Christiani, D.C. Arsenic methylation, GSTT1, GSTM1, GSTP1 polymorphisms, and skin lesions. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 341–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hallmayer, J.; Cleveland, S.; Torres, A.; Phillips, J.; Cohen, B.; Torigoe, T.; Miller, J.; Fedele, A.; Collins, J.; Smith, K.; et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 2011, 68, 1095–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Rahbar, M.H.; Samms-Vaughan, M.; Ma, J.; Bressler, J.; Loveland, K.A.; Ardjomand-Hessabi, M.; Dickerson, A.S.; Grove, M.L.; Shakespeare-Pellington, S.; Beecher, C.; et al. Role of Metabolic Genes in Blood Arsenic Concentrations of Jamaican Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 7874-7895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110807874
Rahbar MH, Samms-Vaughan M, Ma J, Bressler J, Loveland KA, Ardjomand-Hessabi M, Dickerson AS, Grove ML, Shakespeare-Pellington S, Beecher C, et al. Role of Metabolic Genes in Blood Arsenic Concentrations of Jamaican Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(8):7874-7895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110807874
Chicago/Turabian StyleRahbar, Mohammad H., Maureen Samms-Vaughan, Jianzhong Ma, Jan Bressler, Katherine A. Loveland, Manouchehr Ardjomand-Hessabi, Aisha S. Dickerson, Megan L. Grove, Sydonnie Shakespeare-Pellington, Compton Beecher, and et al. 2014. "Role of Metabolic Genes in Blood Arsenic Concentrations of Jamaican Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 8: 7874-7895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110807874