Roles of TGF-β1 in Viral Infection during Pregnancy: Research Update and Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Method:
2. Trophoblasts and the Placenta Villi in Pregnancy
3. Viral Infections in Pregnancy
3.1. RuV
3.2. Human Cytomegalovirus
3.3. HIV
3.4. HBV
3.5. HSV
3.6. IAV
3.7. ZIKV
3.8. SARS-CoV-2
4. TGF-β1 and Its Essential Roles in Human Body Development and Reproductive Tract
5. Roles of TGF β in Viral Infection at the Non-Maternal–Fetal Interface
5.1. RuV
5.2. HCMV
5.3. HIV
5.4. HBV
5.5. HSV
5.6. IAV
5.7. ZIKV
5.8. SARS-CoV-2
6. TGF-β1 and Viral Infection at the Maternal–Fetal Interface
6.1. HCMV
6.2. HIV
6.3. HBV
6.4. ZIKV
7. The Smad Pathway and Promising Future Approaches
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
TGF-β1 | Transforming growth factor-beta 1 |
CRS | Congenital rubella syndrome |
CZS | Congenital Zika syndrome |
MTCT | Mother-to-child transmission |
RuV | Rubella virus |
HCMV | Human cytomegalovirus |
HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus |
HBV | Hepatitis B virus |
HSV | Herpes simplex virus |
IAV | Influenza A virus |
ZIKV | Zika virus |
SARS-CoV-2 | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 |
SIV | Simian immunodeficiency virus |
STB | Syncytiotrophoblasts |
CTB | Cytotrophoblasts |
EVT | Extravillous trophoblasts |
MOI | Multiplicity of infection |
HBx | Hepatitis B virus X protein |
HSP | Heat-shock proteins |
GRP | Glucose-regulated protein |
COVID-19 | Coronavirus disease of 2019 |
ToRCH | Toxoplasma, others, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus |
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Virus | Transmission Routes | Major Infected Cells/Organs | Pregnant and Fetal Outcomes | Vaccine Availability | Representative References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
RuV | Respiratory tract. Direct or droplet contact | Respiratory mucosa and cervical lymph nodes. Others: skin, eye, brain | CRS | Yes | [48,49,50,51,52] |
HCMV | Through bodily fluids: saliva, urine, blood, breast milk | Epithelial cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune cells | Congenital CMV infection | No | [53,54,55,56] |
HIV | Sexual contact, sharing injecting equipment | Immune system, primarily targeting CD4+ T cells | Increase miscarriage, stillbirth, or premature delivery. Congenital HIV infection | No | [57,58,59,60,61] |
HBV | Sexual contact, sharing injecting equipment | Liver cells | Premature delivery or low birth weight, chronic HBV | Yes | [62,63,64,65] |
HSV | Sexual contact, infected skin or mucous membranes | Skin and mucous membranes, nerve cells | Congenital HSV infection, lead to neurological damage, blindness, and death | No | [66,67,68,69] |
IAV | Respiratory tract, through respiratory droplets | Primarily infects respiratory tract cells | Increased risk of pneumonia, premature delivery, or stillbirth. | Yes | [6,45,70,71,72,73] |
ZIKV | Aedes mosquito bite, sexual contact, blood transfusion | Infects skin, lymph nodes, and other tissues including placenta | Fetal loss, stillbirth, miscarriage, CZS with brain abnormalities | No | [74,75,76,77,78] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Respiratory droplets | Primarily infects cells in the respiratory tract | Preterm delivery, fetal distress, and stillbirth | Yes | [46,79,80,81,82,83,84,85] |
Virus | Main Routes of Vertical Transmission | Representative References |
---|---|---|
RuV | The virus can cross the placenta. Transplacental infection can occur at any stage of pregnancy, highest incidence during the first trimester (organogenesis period) | [9,92,93] |
HCMV | Placental and perinatal transmissions, especially if the mother has a primary infection during pregnancy or at the time of delivery; through breastfeeding | [55,93,94,95] |
HIV | The majority of MTCT of HIV occurs during delivery or through breastfeeding | [57,58,96,97,98] |
HBV | Perinatal transmission during delivery is the primary route | [62,99,100,101] |
HSV | Any stage of pregnancy, highest during delivery when the fetus passes through the infected birth canal | [68,102,103,104,105] |
IAV | Through respiratory secretions. The risk of vertical transmission is low compared to other viruses | [3,45,106,107] |
ZIKV | Can cross the placenta. Vertically transplacental infection is highest during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy | [75,76,90,108] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Risk of vertical transmission is generally low. Higher in certain situations: severe maternal COVID-19, infected close to the time of delivery | [79,83,109,110] |
Virus | Type of Studies, Involved Organs/Cell Types | Effects/Roles | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
RuV | In vitro, lung epithelial cells | Increase the virus binding and infection in A549 cells | [20] |
HCMV | In vitro, renal tubular epithelial cells and umbilical vein endothelial cells | Increased expression and activation of TGF-β1 by HCMV infection | [225,226] |
HIV | Ex vivo, bronchial epithelial cells. In vitro, macrophages | Increase CXCR4 expression in macrophages, increase the viral burden in bronchial epithelial cells | [24,25,232] |
HBV | In vitro, hepatocellular carcinoma cells | Inhibit the expression of HBsAg and HBeAg, and suppress HBV replication in HepG2 cells | [28,30] |
HSV | Ex vivo, human cornea organotypic culture | Enhance HSV-1 replication in 3-dimensional human corneal keratocytes | [247] |
IAV | In vitro, lung epithelial cells | Inhibit apoptosis induced by IAV infection on A549 cells | [251] |
ZIKV | In vitro, Sertoli cells | Not affect ZIKV replication in human Sertoli cells | [253] |
SARS-CoV-2 | In vitro, airway epithelial cells | Increase furin expression leading to enhanced susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 | [31,256] |
Virus | Type of Studies, Organs/Cells Involved, Pregnancy Period | Effects/Roles | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
RuV | NR | NR | |
HCMV | In vitro, STB | TGF-β1 and IL-8 promote HCMV replication in STB | [26] |
HIV | In vitro, STB | Not increase HIV construct replication | [257] |
HBV | In vitro, first-trimester trophoblast HTR-8/SVneo cells | Increases HBx-transfected HTR-8/SVneo cell proliferation and invasion | [258] |
HSV | NR | NR | |
IAV | NR | NR | |
ZIKV | In vitro, first-trimester tropho-blast cells | Increase the virus binding and replication in trophoblasts | [34] |
SARS-CoV-2 | NR | NR |
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Trinh, Q.D.; Pham, N.T.K.; Takada, K.; Ushijima, H.; Komine-Aizawa, S.; Hayakawa, S. Roles of TGF-β1 in Viral Infection during Pregnancy: Research Update and Perspectives. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 6489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076489
Trinh QD, Pham NTK, Takada K, Ushijima H, Komine-Aizawa S, Hayakawa S. Roles of TGF-β1 in Viral Infection during Pregnancy: Research Update and Perspectives. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(7):6489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076489
Chicago/Turabian StyleTrinh, Quang Duy, Ngan Thi Kim Pham, Kazuhide Takada, Hiroshi Ushijima, Shihoko Komine-Aizawa, and Satoshi Hayakawa. 2023. "Roles of TGF-β1 in Viral Infection during Pregnancy: Research Update and Perspectives" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 7: 6489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076489