Processing Factors Affecting the Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Peel Waste: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pharmacological, Phytochemical, and Nutritional Composition of Pomegranate Peel—An Overview
2.1. Phytochemistry and Nutritional Constituents of the Pomegranate Peel
2.2. Organic Acids and Total Sugars
2.3. Vitamin and Mineral Contents
3. Effects of Drying Methods
3.1. Sun Drying
3.2. Microwave Drying
3.3. Freeze-Drying
3.4. Vacuum Drying
3.5. Oven Drying
4. Effects of Extraction Methods
4.1. Solvent Extraction
4.2. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Extraction Technique | Cultivar | Country | Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties | Key Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solvent extraction 80% (v/v) methanol and distilled water (aqueous) | Ganesh, Molla de Elche, Arakta, Bhagwa, Wonderful, Herskawitz, Ganesh, and Ruby | South Africa | Total flavonoid content (TFC), gallotannin content (GTC), total anthocyanin content (TAC), catechin, epicatechin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid | High amounts of phenolic compounds were found in peel extracts, with the highest total phenolic content (TPC) of 295.5 mg/g dry extract found in Ganesh and the lowest in cultivar Molla de Elche at 179.3 mg/g dry extract. Catechin, epicatechin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid were found in all cultivars, with ellagic acid being the most abundant. None of the aqueous extracts exhibited good antibacterial activity at the highest screening concentration (>12.5 mg/mL). | [8] |
Solvent extraction water, methanol, and ethanol | Helow | Sultanate of Oman | Total phenolic content (TPC) | Water extracted the highest amount of total phenolic content (TPC), followed by methanol and ethanol. Fresh peel extracts contained 5990, 4530, and 8460 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g dry peel solids (recorded as dry mass (DM)) for methanol, ethanol, and water extracts, respectively. | [85] |
Solvent extraction Aqueous and methanolic extracts | Unknown | Egypt | Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) | Methanol extracts showed highest total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) amounts, regardless of the mode of drying used—methanolic oven-dried peel extracts ranged from 16.00 to 17.78 mg gallic acid/g. The total phenolic content (TPC) of aqueous peel ranged from 14.23 to 16.34 mg gallic acid/g with the same drying technique. Total flavonoid content (TFC) values ranged from 6.99 to 7.98 and 6.54 to 6.86 mg rutin equivalent (RE)/g for methanolic and aqueous oven-dried extracts. | [18] |
Solvent extraction Water, methanol (MeOH), ethanol, acetone, and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extraction (15:1 (w/w) at 40 °C for 4 h) | Wonderful | USA | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), proanthocyanidins, and total flavonoid content (TFC) | Highest extract yield in methanol (MeOH) at 46.51 ± 0.86, followed by water (H2O) at 43.19 ± 2.24. The lowest was ethyl acetate at 0.88 ± 0.08 g dried extract/100 g pomegranate marc peel(PMP). MeOH followed by H2O had the highest phytochemical yields, with total phenolic content (TPC) values of 5.90% and 8.26%, respectively. The concentrations of total phenolic content (TPC), pro-anthocyanidins, and (total flavonoid content (TFC) were highest using ethyl acetate at ≤20%, followed by methanol (MeOH) at 18%, distilled water (H2O) at 14%, and ethanol at 9%. | [109] |
Solvent extraction 80% methanol (MeOH), distilled water (H2O), and diethyl ether extracts | Yemeni varieties | Saudi Arabia | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and ascorbic acid | 80% methanol (MeOH) extract had the highest yields for total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) at 45.4 ± 5.3% and 274 ± 17 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g (27.4%) and 56.4 ± 2.7 mg for flavonoids rutin equivalent (RE)/g. Ascorbic acid (AA) was only present in small amounts (2 mg/g), and thus it was unlikely to substantially contribute to the antioxidant activity of methanol (MeOH). | [112] |
Solvent extraction MeOH at 30 °C for 4 h | Ganesh | India | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), gallic acid, and ellagic acid | Methanol (MeOH) extract had the highest yield at 10.38 ± 0.89% weight for weight (w/w). The total phenolic content of the extract [(+)-catechin equivalent] was found to be 42% weight for weight (w/w). The high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) pattern of the methanol (MeOH) extract of peel showed the presence of gallic acid and ellagic acid as the major components. Methanol (MeOH) pomegranate peel extract was reported to enhance or maintain the activity of hepatic enzymes. | [114] |
Solvent extraction Water, ethanol (50, 70 and 100% ethanol), and methanol (100%) | Ganesh | India | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC) | The highest yield was reported using 50% ethanol at 16.3 ± 1.99%, while aqueous extract had the highest total phenolic content (TPC) at 438.3 mg/g. Higher 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) inhibition was reported using methanol and 70% ethanol at 79.5 ± 6.5 and 94.6 ± 6.10, respectively. | [106] |
Solvent extraction Aqueous, ethanol, chloroform, acetone, and petroleum ether | Unknown | India | Extract yield, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, quinones, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, phenol, steroid, coumarins, and alkaloids | The optimum tannin yield was reported at 87.3 mg tannic acid equivalent (TAE)/g using ethanol extract. Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, quinones, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, phenol, steroid, coumarins, and alkaloids. Highest antioxidant activity was reported at 94.5% using ethanol extract. | [124] |
Soxhlet extraction (solvent extraction) Hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol | Unknown | India | Extract yield, 5-hydroxy- methylfurfural, furan-2,5- dicarbaldehyde | The highest exact yield was obtained at 37.85% using methanol and the lowest at 2.1% using hexane. Methanolic extract showed higher 5-hydroxymethylfurfural as a major compound at 60.11%, higher radical scavenging activity (RSA) of 75.36% at 100µg/mL, and a minimum value of 41.20% at 10µg/mL. Furan-2,5-dicarbaldehyde was reported with high radical scavenging activity (RSA) of 70.39% at 100µg/mL and 39.03% at 10µg/mL. | [113] |
Solvent extraction Methanol, ethanol, acetone, chloroform, and ethyl acetate | Unknown | India | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), methyl gallate, tocopherol, quercitin glucoside, polymeric flavonol, maclurin-3-c-(2-o-galloyl)-β-d-glucoside, epicatechin, and quercitin pentoside | Methanol had the highest yield at 23.56%, while the lowest yield was 2.2% using ethyl acetate. Similarly, the highest total phenolic content (TPC) value was found in methanol and the lowest in ethyl acetate peel extracts at 78.92 and 1.30 mg/gm gallic acid equivalent (GAE), respectively. | [115] |
Solvent extraction ethyl acetate (EtOAc), methanol, and water | Ganesh | India | Moisture content (%), extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), gallic acid | Methanolic peel extracts had the highest extract yield at 9.38% weight for weight (w/w), followed by water at 7.53% weight for weight (w/w) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) at 1.04% weight for weight (w/w). Methanol (MeOH) extract had highest total phenolic content (TPC) at 44.0% weight for weight (w/w), while lowest was found in aqueous extract at 3.00% weight for weight (w/w). | [108] |
Solvent extraction Ethanol, methanol, acetone, and combinations | Unknown | China | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), flavonoids, pro-athocyanidins, and ascorbic acid | Peel combination solvent extract had higher ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) value (approximately 4.5 mmol/L) than those obtained using individual solvents. Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, and ascorbic acid of peel extract were reported at 31.5 ± 3.1%, 249.4 ± 17.2 mg/g, 59.1 ± 4.8 mg/g, 10.9 ± 0.5 mg/g, and 0.99 ± 0.02 mg/g, respectively. | [125] |
Solvent extraction ethyl acetate (EtOAc), acetone, methanol (MeOH), and water | Unknown | India | Extract yield and Total phenolic content (TPC) | Methanol (MeOH) extract had highest total phenolic content (TPC) yields at 9.4% and 460 mg/g, respectively. | [116] |
Solvent and ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction methods (acetone, methanol (MeOH), ethanol (EtOH), water (H2O), ethyl acetate) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of (CO2) | Poost Syah | Iran | Phenolic compounds, punicalagin | Punicalagin content range was 0.32–0.84 g/100 g dryweight (DW) using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). Acetone with sonication produced the highest phenolic compound contents (in either solvent or ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction methods, 40.0 and 35.0% for sonication and solvent extraction, respectively; lowest values were found in ethyl acetate extracts (0.2 and 0.2%)). The ethyl acetate extract and extract of modified supercritical fluid extraction carbon dioxide (SFE CO2) had similar but comparatively small extraction yields. | [126] |
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and hydrodistillation | Malas | Iran | Over 76 essential oils including oleic acid, palmitic acid, and (−)-borneol | Over 76 essential oils were identified using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS), with oleic acid, palmitic acid, and (−)-borneol being the major compounds in both extracts. The optimum extraction yields were 1.18% weight for weight (w/w) for supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and 0.21% volume per weight (v/w) for hydrodistillation. | [118] |
Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) using a Box–Behnken design | Wonderful | Chile | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), phenolic compounds (punicalagin (PU) and punicic acid (PA)) | Extract yields ranged from 0.2% to 8.5%, with the highest yields at 200 and 300 bar, 40–50 °C, and 20% cosolvent. Punicalagin (PU) contents of 0.4–9.5% with optimal extraction conditions of 400 bar, 43 °C, and 20% ethanol. Once the peel extract was extracted under optimal conditions, the extract had a punicalagin (PU) content of 9.7%, total phenolic content (TPC) of 10.01 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per g, and an antioxidant activity of 99.4 (lg Trolox equivalent per g). The punicalagin EE ranged from 35.1% to 72.4%. | [119] |
Enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (EASCFE) and enzyme-assisted solvent extraction (EASE) | Unknown | Pakistan | Extract yield, Total phenolic content (TPC), phenolic acids: vanillic acid, ferulic, syringic, sinapic acid | The highest extract yield of 65.89% was obtained using enzyme-assisted solvent extraction (EASE). Enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (EASCFE) had the highest total phenolic content (TPC) at 301.53 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g pretreated under optimised conditions involving cocktail enzyme concentration (3.8%) at 49 °C and pH of 6.7 for 85 min. Numerous phenolic compounds were present in high amounts, such as vanillic acid ranging at 65.87 and 108.36 µg/g in enzyme-assisted solvent extraction (EASE) and enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (EASCFE), respectively. The p-coumaric acid (0.12–14.87 µg/g), gallic acid (0.041–0.37 µg/g), caffeic acid (3.88–75.19 µg/g), ferulic acid (0.15–8.84µg/g), syringic acid (15.17–88.24 µg/g), and sinapic acid (2.13–3.58 µg/g) were assayed after enzyme-assisted solvent extraction (EASE) and enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction (EASCFE). | [120] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) Water | Sishe Kape-Ferdos | Iran | Moisture content, extract yield, and total phenolic content (TPC) | The moisture content was reported at 46.62 wet basis (%wb). The optimal conditions based on both individual and combinations of all process variables were ultrasonic amplitude (UA) of 60% and ultrasonic exposure time (UET) of 6.2 min. With these optimum conditions, the predicted maximum yield and total phenolic content (TPC) values were 13.1% and 42.2 mg gallic acid (GA)/g, respectively. | [127] |
Ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction | Dalim | India | Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) | The optimum conditions for maximum extractability were an ultrasonication time of 41.45 min, enzyme concentration of 1.32 mL/100 mL, incubation time of 1.821 h, and incubation temperature of 44.85 °C. The total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and radical scavenging activity (RSA) values in optimised conditions were 19.77 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, 17.97 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g, and 74.213%, respectively. | [128] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction Ethanol | Unknown | Serbia | Total phenolic content (TPC), phenolic compounds: ellagic acid, gallic acid, punicalagin, and punicalin | Optimal extraction process conditions were as follows: extraction time of 25 min, ethanol concentration of 59%, solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:44, and extraction temperature of 80 °C. Total phenolic content (TPC) values in extracts obtained using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) technique varied between 81.61 and 190.94 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry weight (DW). Ellagic acid, gallic acid, punicalin, and punicalagin content ranges were 4.05–12.54, 1.13–3.58, 28.38–65.67 and 7.04–35.05 mg/g dry weight (DW), respectively. | [129] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction Sunflower and soy oils | Unknown | Greece | Extract yield and carotenoids | The optimum extraction yield was about 0.3255 mg carotenoids/100 g of dry peels. The levels of extraction using the green solvents and ultrasound were about 85.7 and 93.8% of the total carotenoids present in the waste material, respectively. The highest concentrations obtained were 0.6134 and 0.6715 mg carotenoids/100 g of dry peels using sunflower oil and soy oils, respectively. | [130] |
Pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction (PUAE) | Malas | Iran | Extract yield, punicalagin, ellagic acid, gallic acid, and hydroxybenzoic acids | The application of 10 min extraction under the pulsed mode also resulted in a high yield (41.6%). Punicalagin contents (α and β) varied from 128.02 to 146.61 mg/g, with the highest content obtained at an intensity level of 105 W/cm2 and duty cycle of 50% for a short time (10 min). Ellagic acid content varied from 10.12 to 22.53 mg/g with different pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction (PUAE) conditions. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed that punicalagin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid constitute almost 168.55 mg/g of the peel extract. | [131] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction | Unknown | India | Extract yield of pectin | Optimal conditions were solid liquid (SL) ratio of 1:18 g/mL, pH of 1.3, extraction time of 29 min, and extraction temperature of 62 °C. Under these conditions, the experimental yield of pectin was reported at 23.87%, close to the predicted value (23.92%). | [132] |
Ultrasound-assisted polysaccharide extraction | Unknown | China | Polysaccharide yield | Optimum extraction parameters were as follows: ratio of water-to-raw material of 24 mL/g, ultrasonic power of 148 W, extraction time and temperature of 63 min and 55 °C, respectively. Under these conditions, the polysaccharide yield was 13.658 ± 0.133%, similar to the predicted value of 13.787%. | [133] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction | Unknown | Greece | Extract yield | Direct ultrasound-assisted extraction of total phenolics gave a maximum yield of 13.85% (g gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g of dry peels) with an extraction time of 10 min. The extraction yield increased with increasing extraction temperature from 25 to 35 °C, with amplitude levels up to around 40%, solvent/peel ratios of up to 33:1, and decreasing pulse duration/pulse interval ratios | [134] |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction Ethanol–water mixture | Unknown | Iran | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC) | The extraction yield with water–ethanol as the solvent (45.4%) was four times better than the values for water, which were 11–14%.The extraction yield with water–ethanol as the solvent (45.4%) was also better than methanol (29–35.5%). Total phenolic content (TPC) varied from 5506.42 to 8923.24 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g of dry weight. Optimal conditions were 70% ethanol–water mixture as the solvent, temperature of 60 °C, and extraction time of 30 min. | [135] |
Ultrasonic-assisted extraction | Bhagwa | India | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), total tannins (TE), phenolic compounds: gallic acid, ellagic acid, and punicalagin (α and β) | Optimum process conditions of 15.12 min (extraction time) and amplitude of 30% gave the highest yield, total phenolic content (TPC), and total tannins (TE) values of 42.45%, 354.67 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, and 348.0 g TAE/g, respectively. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed gallic acid, ellagic acid, and punicalagin (α and β) as the major ellagitannin compounds at 0.96, 7.58, and 163.52 mg/g, respectively. | [136] |
Ultrasound-assisted extractions in continuous (CUAE) and pulsed modes (PUAE) compared with convectional extraction (CE) | Wonderful | USA | Total phenolic yield (%) | High antioxidant yield (14.8%) was achieved at an intensity of 59.2 W/cm2 and treatment time of 60 min for ultrasound-assisted extractions in continuous (CUAE). 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy (DPPH) scavenging activities of 5.5 g/g at an extraction time of 60 min, temperature of 25 ± 2 °C, and water/peel ratio of 50:1 w/w elevated the antioxidant yield by 24% and decreased the extraction time by 90% compared to convectional extraction (CE). An intensity level of 59.2 W/cm2, pulse duration of 5, and interval of 5 s gave an antioxidant yield of 14.5%. Pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction (PUAE) elevated the antioxidant yield by 22% and decreased the extraction time by 87% in comparison to convectional extraction (CE). It also conserved 50% more electrical energy than ultrasound-assisted extractions in continuous (CUAE). Pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction (PUAE) was superior to ultrasound-assisted extractions in continuous (CUAE). | [137] |
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) Used water | Unknown | China | Phenolic yield | The average experimental phenolic yield under the optimum conditions was found to be 210.36 ± 2.85 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, similar to the predicted value of 214.46 mg GAE/g. It was found that the extract was an effective scavenger in quenching 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy (DPPH) radicals, with an inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 14.53 µg/mL. | [138] |
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) Ethanol | Unknown | China | Flavonoids content and yield of flavonoids | A maximum extraction yield of 4.26% was achieved at an ethanol concentration of 60%, solvent-to-material ratio of 40:1, and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) time of 3 min. The extract exhibited a strong 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy (DPPH) radical scavenging ability, with an inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 0.187 mg/mL. | [139] |
Microwave-assisted extraction, ultra-assisted extraction, conventional solid–liquid extraction (maceration and decoction) | Unknown | Mexico | Total phenolic content (TPC), phenolic compounds | The microwave extraction method obtained the highest total phenolic content (TPC) at 18.92 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, and 14 compounds were identified using both extraction methods. Both extraction methods showed important differences. Cinnamic acid (m/z 146.9279) and granatin B (Galloyl-HHDP-DHHDP-hexoside) (m/z 950.7491) were only reported in decoction peel extracts. Secoisolariciresinol di-O-glucoside (m/z 540.8878) and pedunculagin I (m/z 782.8182) were reported in microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) peel extracts. | [140] |
Pressurised liquid extraction Deionised water | Izmir 8, Izmir 10, Izmir 16, Izmir 23, Izmir 26, Izmir 1264, Izmir 1479, Izmir 1499, Izmir 1513 | Turkey | Extract yield, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), condensed tannins (CT), hydrolysable tannins (HT), punicalagin (α and β), gallic acid and ellagic acid | Extract yields of 43.3, 46.5, and 16.7% reported for pressurised water extraction (PWE), methanol, and water extraction, respectively. Total phenolic content (TPC) values of 264.3, 258.2 and 80.5 mg tannic acid equivalent (TAE)/g reported using pressurised water (PWE), methanol, and water extraction, respectively. Total flavonoid content (TFC) values of 13.0, 18.1, and 6.2 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/g reported using pressurised water extraction (PWE), methanol, and water extraction, respectively. Hydrolysable tannins (HT) ranged from 262.70 to 82.6 mg tannic acid equivalent (TAE)/g (water extraction). Condensed tannins (CT) values of 9.5, 9.2, and 3.7 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/g dry weight (DW) using PWE, methanol, and water extraction, respectively. Punicalagin content (α and β), ellagic acid, and gallic acid values of 116.6, 1.25, and 1.43 mg/g, respectively. | [141] |
Ultrasound-assisted pressurised liquid extraction (UAPLE) Water, ethanol + water 30, 50, and 70% v/v) | Wonderful | USA | Extract yield, α- and β-punicalagin, ellagic acid hexoside. and ellagic acid. Ellagic acid pentoside, ellagic acid deoxyhexoside, pedunculagin I, and unidentified compounds | Ultrasound extraction was reported to have a higher influence on the extraction yields when utilising large particles measuring 1.05 mm and intermediate ultrasound power of 480–640 W at the generator or 23.1–30.8 W at the tip of the probe. Using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), a total of 24 different compounds were detected. Using a larger peel particle size of 1.05 mm, water extraction, extraction temperature of 70 °C, ultrasound power of 480 W, and 3 cycles, am enhanced phenolic recovery yield of 61.72 ± 7.70 mg/g of phenolic compounds was achieved from the pomegranate peel. | [142] |
High-pressure assisted extraction | Unknown | Portugal | Extract yield, individual phenolics, tannins, and anthocyanins | Increase of the extraction time and pressure and decrease of ethanol concentration, as well as enhanced extract yields (only until a pressure of 382 MPa and ethanol concentration of 36%). The optimum extraction conditions were comparable for all compounds, excluding anthocyanins, which varied between 356 and 600 MPa, with an extraction time of 30 min and an ethanol concentration of 56%. The optimum conditions were reported at an extraction time of 30 min, pressure of 492 MPa, and an extraction concentration of 37%. | [143] |
4.3. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
4.4. Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
4.5. Pressurised Liquid Extraction (PLE)
5. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Medicinal Uses | Plant Part | Administration | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Vermifuge and anthelmintic | Root and bark | Oral | [46] |
Diarrhoea | Peel | Oral | [47] |
Blood tonic | Juice | Oral | [48] |
Treat vaginal white discharges | Peel | Oral | [49] |
Weight loss | Juice | Oral | |
Stomach disorders | Peel, bark, and leaves | Oral | [50] |
To slow the development of cataracts and anaemia | Seed | Ophthalmic | |
Fatigue and hear loss | Oral | ||
Cure sore throat, dental plaque, dysentery, cholera | Juice | Oral | |
Cure haemorrhoid flare ups | Topical | ||
Stop nosebleeds | Oral and or nasal | ||
Against diarrhoea, dysentery, and intestinal parasites | Peel and bark | Oral | [51] |
Slow the development of cataracts | Juice | Ophthalmic | |
Tonic for the heart and throat | Seeds and juice | Oral | |
Nose bleeds | Flower juice, peel, and bark | Oral and or nasal | |
Gum disease | Oral | ||
Treat haemorrhoids | Topical | ||
Wound healing | Leaves and bark | Topical | [52] |
Antiparasitic | Oral | ||
Beneficial in fevers and chronic debility due to malaria | Root | Oral | [53] |
Antidiabetic properties | Flowers | Oral | [54] |
Pharmacological Activity * | Plant Part | Test Method | Details | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Antibacterial (Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia) and Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) | Peel extracts | Microdilution antibacterial assay | Methanolic peel extracts showed strong broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 0.2 to 0.78 mg/mL. | [8] |
Antityrosinase properties | Peel extracts | Spectrophotometric method | Active peel extracts against monophenolase and diphenolase had IC50 values of 3.66 and 15.88 µg/mL, respectively. | [8] |
Anti-inflammatory | Peel extracts | Column chromatography combined with in vitro bioassay-guided fractionation | Pomegranate fractions showed potential nitric oxide (NO) inhibition in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and also significantly reduced carrageenan-induced mice paw oedema for 1, 3, 4 and 5 h. | [60] |
Antimicrobial (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa and E. coli) | Aril and peel extracts | Agar diffusion | All of the fruit fraction extracts exhibited higher antimicrobial activity on S. aureus than P. aeruginosa, while E. coli was resistant. | [9] |
Antifungal (Penicillium italicum, Rhizopus stolonifera, and Botrytis cinerea) | Leaf, peel, and seed extracts | Agar diffusion | The highest inhibitory spore germination (ISG) value was reported at 30.92 ± 2.64% followed by 30.29 ± 2.58% for Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer, respectively. Penicillium italicum showed the lowest inhibition of spore germination at 17.86 ± 2.09%. | [44] |
Antioxidant properties | Peel powder | 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) | Antioxidant levels ranged from 1.8 to 6.8 µmol Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) per gram bread for fresh bread. Addition of peel powder up to 2.5% w/w to wheat bread significantly increased its oxidative stability, with no effect on innocuousness as assayed with the brine–shrimp larvae assay. | [61] |
Anticardiovascular properties | Juice | In vivo experiment, 101 haemodialysis (HD) patients were randomised to receive 100 cc of pomegranate juice containing about 0.7 mM polyphenols three times a week for one year | Consumption of juice yielded significant time response improvements in systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, triglycerides, and high density lipoprotein (HDL) level. These beneficial outcomes were more pronounced among patients with hypertension, high levels of triglycerides and low levels of HDL. | [43] |
Antihyperglycaemic, antihyperlipidaemic, and antioxidant properties | Peel extracts | In vivo experiment, 56 Wister albino rats were distributed into 8 groups and compared with standard drugs (glibenclamide and atorvastatin). For antioxidant activity: DPPH (2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) | Peel extracts showed antihyperglycaemic and antihyperlipidaemic activities from a powerful reactive oxygen scavenger through its antioxidant compounds. In addition, the peel extracts enhanced liver and kidney functions when compared to standard drugs in diabetic and hyperlipidaemic rats. | [62] |
Plant Part | Constituents |
---|---|
Roots and bark | Ellagitannins, including punicalagin and punicalin, and several piperidine alkaloids. |
Leaf | Tannins (which include punicafolin and punicalin), flavone glycosides, luteolin and apigenin, and brevifolin carboxylic acid. |
Pericarp (Peel) | Ellagitannins (punicalin and punicalagin), gallic acid and other fatty acids, catechin and epicatechin, quercetin, rutin and other flavonols, flavones, flavonones, procanthocyanidins, and anthocyanidins. |
Flower | Gallic acid, triterpenoids, and ursolic acids, including maslinic and asiatic acids. |
Seed oil | Punicic acid, hydroxybenzoic acids (gallic and ellagic), other fatty acids, sterols (daucosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol), and γ-tocopherol. |
Juice | Procanthocyanidins and anthocyanins, ellagitannins (punicalin and punicalagin), glucose, ascorbic acid, ellagic acid, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechin and epicatechin, quercetin, rutin, amino acids (methionine, proline, and valine), and many minerals especially irons. |
Drying Technique | Cultivar | Country | Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties | Key Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sun (4 days) and oven drying (overnight at 100 °C) | Baghva, Ruby, Indian white, and Egypt | Sultanate of Oman | Moisture loss (%), pH, and vitamin C | Sun-dried fruit peel had highest water loss, pH, and vitamin C values, with ranges of 64.49–82.52%, 3.5–4.5, and 100–75 mg/100 g dry weight (DW), respectively. | [9] |
Freeze-drying (20 °C for 96 h), air drying (48, 30, and 24 h), vacuum drying (60 kPa vacuum at 40, 60, or 90 °C for 24, 13, and 4.5 h), and sun drying for 11 h | Helow | Sultanate of Oman | Moisture loss (%) and total phenolics | Freeze-dried peels showed phenolic contents comparable to those of fresh peel (i.e., 4900 and 4010 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g dry peel solids). Vacuum drying ranged from 1200 to 5330 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g dry peel solids extracted in ethanol at 40 °C and in water at 90 °C, respectively. The highest sun-dried peel value of 4080 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g dry peel solids was achieved in water extract. | [85] |
Microwave drying (up to 9 min) air drying (5 days), sun drying (5 days) silica gel drying (up to 7 days) and hot air oven drying (40 °C for 30 h) | Unknown | India | Moisture loss (%) | Highest drying weight for pomegranate peel using microwave dryer at 34.67 g. Lowest moisture loss for pomegranate peel reported using a microwave oven dryer at 65.33%. | [86] |
Oven (40 °C for 48 h) and solar drying (50 °C for 2 h) | Unknown | Egypt | Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) | Total phenolic content (TPC) highest in oven-dried peel with 17.78 mg gallic acid/g in methanol extract. Total flavonoid content (TFC) values statistically similar for both oven- and sun-dried whole peel at 7.98 and 7.96 mg rutin equivalent (RE)/g, respectively. | [18] |
Freeze (−88.7 °C for 16 h) and oven drying (40, 50, and 60 °C for 22, 17, and 12 h, respectively) | Wonderful | South Africa | Punicalin, rutin, p-coumaric, +catechin,-epicatechin, hesperidin, vitamin C | Higher punicalin and p-coumaric values at 60 °C. Freeze-dried (FD) peel had higher rutin, +catechin, -epicatechin, and hesperidin values at 4666.03 mg/kg dry mass (DM), 674.51, 70.56, and 16.45 mg/kg DM, respectively. Vitamin C was reported at ˂30 µg ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE)/g dry mass (DM) using an oven drier at 40 °C. | [34] |
Freeze-drying at −80 °C, ambient temperature of ~25 °C, and oven drying at 50 °C | Unknown | USA | Total phenolic content (TPC), α-punicalin, β-punicalin, ellagic acid, α- and β-punicalagin | Higher total phenolic content (TPC), α- punicalin, and β-punicalin values in freeze-dried peel samples of 96 mg/g gallic acid equivalent, 0.8 mg/g, and 1.6 mg/g, respectively. Higher punicalagin (~38.6–50.3 mg/g) and ellagic acid (~2.8–3.2 mg) levels in the peel fractions. | [87] |
Freeze-drying (FD) for 48 h; convective drying (CD) at 50, 60, or 70 °C; vacuum–microwave drying (VMD) at 3 different power levels of 240, 360, or 480 W; combined drying (CPD-VMFD) and predrying (CPD) at 60 °C for 90 or 150 min, VMFD with microwave wattage of 360 W. | Mollar de Elche | Spain | Punicalagin isomers (α-PC and β-PC), ellagic acid (EA), and total phenolic content (TPC) | The α-punicalagin and β-punicalagin isomers were highest in fresh peel at 139 and 143 mg/g DW, followed by freeze-dried peel at 113.4 and 98.7 mg/g dry weight (DW), respectively. High ellagic acid (EA) reported in fresh peel at 2.49 mg/g, followed by convective drying (60 °C) and freeze-drying, which were statistically similar at 1.95 mg/g at 1.71 mg/g, respectively. Fresh samples had higher total phenolic content (TPC) values at 125 mg/g gallic acid equivalent, followed by freeze-dried peel at 118 mg/g gallic acid equivalent. | [88] |
Single-mode microwave oven dryer, microwave hydro-diffusion (MH), and gravity oven dryer (MHG): both at temperatures ˂ 100 °C for ˂5 min, and traditional oven dryer at 40 °C for 48 h | Acco and Wonderful | Italy | Total phenolic content (TPC), free ellagic acid (EA), and ellagitannins (ETs) | Microwave hydro-diffusion gravity oven dryer was reported with high amounts of total phenolic content (TPC) at 190–230 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 mL, ellagitannins at 106–110 µg/mL, and radical scavenging activity (RSA) at 480–560 mg ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC)/100 mL. | [89] |
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Magangana, T.P.; Makunga, N.P.; Fawole, O.A.; Opara, U.L. Processing Factors Affecting the Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Peel Waste: A Review. Molecules 2020, 25, 4690. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204690
Magangana TP, Makunga NP, Fawole OA, Opara UL. Processing Factors Affecting the Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Peel Waste: A Review. Molecules. 2020; 25(20):4690. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204690
Chicago/Turabian StyleMagangana, Tandokazi Pamela, Nokwanda Pearl Makunga, Olaniyi Amos Fawole, and Umezuruike Linus Opara. 2020. "Processing Factors Affecting the Phytochemical and Nutritional Properties of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Peel Waste: A Review" Molecules 25, no. 20: 4690. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204690