Saved Queries

by Federica Papaccio, Ramona Marrapodi, Laura Eibenschutz, Andrea D’Arino, Silvia Caputo, Alberto Marini, Simona Scano, Arianna Presaghi, Carlo Cota, Elisa Melucci, Stefano Scalera, Emilia Migliano, Marcello Maugeri-Saccà, Pasquale Frascione and Barbara Bellei

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010068 (registering DOI) - 21 Dec 2025

Abstract

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common skin cancer, predominantly affecting sun-exposed areas. It typically grows slowly and rarely metastasizes, though untreated cases can cause significant tissue destruction and morbidity. Its pathogenesis primarily involves dysregulation of the Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway, mainly through mutations in PTCH1 or SMO genes, leading to chronic activation of downstream GLI transcription factors. Accordingly, current targeted therapies for locally advanced, unresectable, or metastatic BCC focus on SMO inhibition, using orally administered drugs such as vismodegib and sonidegib. Although these therapies have shown success, many patients develop resistance, with about 50% harboring mutated SMO. In numerous cases, genetic determinants (sometimes pre-existing) of resistance remain unidentified, complicating patient management. Here, we report a case of a 58-year-old female with advanced BCC who initially exhibited a favorable response to sonidegib but developed resistance after approximately one year. This resistance was not attributable to the acquired mutations in SMO but rather to intra-tumor heterogeneity and additional mutations in critical driver genes, including TP53, APC, FGFR1 and NOTCH1, which likely enable HH pathway inhibition. To our knowledge, this is the first report documenting a sonidegib resistance mechanism in BCC that is independent of HH pathway mutations. This case highlights the complexity of resistance mechanisms to HH inhibitors and underscores the critical need for comprehensive molecular tumor profiling prior to initiating targeted therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skin Cancer: From Molecular Pathophysiology to Novel Treatment)

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24 pages, 4915 KB

Open AccessArticle

Laser-Deposited Multilayer Coatings for Brake Discs: Corrosion Performance of 316L/430L Systems Reinforced with WC and TiC Particles

by Mohammad Masafi, Mo Li, Heinz Palkowski and Hadi Mozaffari-Jovein

Materials 2026, 19(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19010024 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Grey cast iron brake discs are widely used in automotive applications due to their excellent thermal and mechanical properties. However, stricter environmental regulations such as Euro 7 demand improved surface durability to reduce particulate emissions and corrosion-related failures. This study evaluates multilayer coatings fabricated by Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) as a potential solution. Two multi-layer systems were investigated: 316L + (316L + WC) and 316L + (430L + TiC), which were primarily reinforced with ceramic additives to increase wear resistance, with their influence on corrosion being critically evaluated. Electrochemical tests in 5 wt.% NaCl solution (DIN 17475) revealed that the 316L + (316L + WC) coating exhibited the lowest corrosion current density and most stable passive behavior, consistent with the inherent passivation of the austenitic 316L matrix. In contrast, the 316L + (430L + TiC) system showed localized corrosion associated with micro-galvanic interactions, despite the chemical stability of TiC particles. Post-corrosion SEM and EDS confirmed chromium depletion and chloride accumulation at corroded sites, while WC particles exhibited partial dissolution. These findings highlight that ceramic reinforcements do not inherently improve corrosion resistance and may introduce localized degradation mechanisms. Nevertheless, LMD-fabricated multilayer coatings demonstrate potential for extending brake disc service life, provided that matrix–reinforcement interactions are carefully optimized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Alloys and Composites (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 2478 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Selection of Transmitted Views for Decoder-Side Depth Estimation

by Dominika Klóska, Adrian Dziembowski, Adam Grzelka and Dawid Mieloch

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16010072 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

The selection of optimal views for transmission is critical for the coding efficiency of the MPEG Immersive Video (MIV) profile of Decoder-Side Depth Estimation (DSDE). Standard approaches, which favor a uniform camera distribution, often fail in scenes with complex geometry, leading to decreased quality of depth estimation, and thus, reduced quality of virtual views presented to a viewer. This paper proposes an adaptive view selection method that analyzes the scene’s percentage of occluded regions. Based on this analysis, the encoder dynamically selects a transmission strategy: for scenes with a low occlusion ratio (smaller than 10%), a uniform layout is maintained to maximize spatial coverage; for scenes with a high occlusion ratio, the system switches to grouping cameras into stereo pairs, which are more robust for decreasing numbers of occlusions. Experiments conducted using the TMIV reference software demonstrated that this approach yields measurable quality gains (up to 2 dB BD-IVPSNR) for complex test sequences, such as MartialArts and Frog, without requiring any modifications to the decoder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering)

16 pages, 8163 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deletion of Glutamate Delta 1 Receptor Leads to Heterogeneous Transcription and Synaptic Gene Alterations Across Brain Regions

by Jingguo Huang, Jiahao Liao, Xuanying Chen, Guiping Lin, Yangwangmu De, Huakun Shangguan and Wucheng Tao

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010067 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Glutamate delta 1 receptor (GluD1) has various functional roles in the brain, such as high-frequency hearing, synapse formation and maintenance, and regulation of cognition disorders and neurodevelopmental disease. However, the underlying molecular mechanism, especially at the genetic level, remains to be elucidated. In this study, we use transcriptomics analysis to define the genetic impact of GluD1 across the brain regions in GluD1 knockout mice. Our results show that GluD1 deletion induced pronounced differences in gene expression both across the four brain regions (cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, and striatum) and the distinct hippocampal subregions. Despite differences in transcriptional profiles, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) across all four brain regions show significant enrichment in synaptic signaling pathways, highlighting the critical role of GluD1 in synaptic function. The GluD1 interaction network and its downstream target genes are closely linked to the pathogenesis of intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). In conclusion, our work reveals that GluD1 deletion leads to brain-region-specific transcriptional changes and establishes a genetic link between the interaction network with GluD1 and the risk genes for ID and ASD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Neurobiology)

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28 pages, 10913 KB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Flora Composition and Leaf Physiognomy to Reconstruct the Paleocommunity, Palaeoclimate, and Paleoenvironment of the Jehol Biota in Jilin, China

by Wei Huang and Dejun Zhang

Plants 2026, 15(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010022 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Herein, we present a systematic investigation of plant fossils from the Yingzuilazi Formation in Baishan City, Jilin Province, China. The Baishan flora comprises 27 genera and 46 species. They are predominantly autochthonous or parautochthonous, based on their floral composition and taphonomic attributes. An analysis of paleoecological characteristics of the fossil plant assemblages, combined with the habitat preferences of analogous modern communities, allowed us to reconstruct the Early Cretaceous plant communities in the Baishan Basin: a riparian–wetland community, lowland community, montane slope community, and montane highland community. The floral composition, a statistical analysis of foliar physiognomy, and the palynofloral characteristics indicated a warm and humid temperate climate during the deposition of the Yingzuilazi Formation. A genus-level comparison with the Yixian Formation flora of western Liaoning revealed high compositional similarity, which confirms the Baishan flora as the easternmost distribution of the Jehol Biota in China. This study provides new fossil evidence for understanding Early Cretaceous floristic provincialism and paleoenvironmental reconstruction in East Asia. It offers geological references that can predict vegetation responses to a greenhouse climate. Additionally, Sphenopsida and Filicopsida may serve as potential indicators that may identify favorable terrestrial shale oil and gas reservoirs from the Early Cretaceous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Systematics, Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Classification)

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29 pages, 2862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Water Quality Models by Particle Forward and Backtracking Methods

by Marta Hervás, Fernando Martínez-Alzamora, Pilar Conejos and Joan Carles Alonso

Water 2026, 18(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010021 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

The quality of water supplied to consumers through drinking water distribution networks is a matter of growing concern and is subject to increasingly stringent new regulations. The utilization of simulation models, which encompass the movement of water through pipes and storage tanks, has been demonstrated to provide valuable information with regard to the improvement of the system operation. However, once a calibrated quality model is available, justifying the evolution of the quality provided by the model at any junction in the network is not direct; however, this is sometimes necessary to carry out the appropriate interventions to improve quality parameters. A methodology to help the comprehension of the quality results provided by simulation models has been developed in this paper. This methodology is based on the principles of event-based transport methods, whereby the quality of a particle is tracked as it moves downstream from a starting point or upstream from an arrival point. Upon reaching a junction, an event occurs that determines the subsequent trajectory of the particle. The details of the method and its potential are demonstrated through an illustrative example, reinforced by its application in a more realistic case. Consequently, by monitoring the particles, it becomes feasible to interpret the quality values obtained at any junction in the network and at any designated moment. If the quality value were the result of a measurement, the method would also allow us to track the origin of that value; in this way, it could be used in the future to locate the possible source of a detected contaminant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

18 pages, 19598 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Shape of Chaos: A Geometric Perspective on Characterizing Chaos

by José Luis Echenausía-Monroy, Luis Javier Ontañón-García, Daniel Alejandro Magallón-García, Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar, Hector Eduardo Gilardi-Velázquez, José Ricardo Cuesta-García, Raúl Rivera-Rodríguez and Joaquín Álvarez

Mathematics 2026, 14(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/math14010015 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Chaotic dynamical systems are ubiquitous in nature and modern technology, with applications ranging from secure communications and cryptography to the design of chaos-based sensors and modeling biological phenomena such as arrhythmias and neuronal behavior. Given their complexity, precise analysis of these systems is crucial for both theoretical understanding and practical implementation. The characterization of chaotic dynamical systems typically relies on conventional measures such as Lyapunov exponents and fractal dimensions. While these metrics are fundamental for describing dynamical behavior, they are often computationally expensive and may fail to capture subtle changes in the overall geometry of the attractor, limiting comparisons between systems with topologically similar structures and similar values in common chaos metrics such as the Lyapunov exponent. To address this limitation, this work proposes a geometric framework that treats chaotic attractors as spatial objects, using topological tools—specifically the

α

-sphere—to quantify their shape and spatial extent. The proposed method was validated using Chua’s system (including two reported variations), the Rössler system (standard and piecewise-linear), and a fractional-order multi-scroll system. A parametric characterization of the Rössler system was also performed by varying parameter b. Experimental results show that this geometric approach successfully distinguishes between attractors where classical metrics reveal no perceptible differences, in addition to being computationally simpler. Notably, we observed geometric variations of up to 80% among attractors with similar dynamics and introduced a specific index to quantify these global discrepancies. Although this geometric analysis serves as a complement rather than a substitute for chaos detection, it provides a reliable and interpretable metric for differentiating systems and selecting attractors based on their spatial properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mathematical Modelling of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems)

16 pages, 3669 KB

Open AccessArticle

Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequencing of Brachypelma albiceps and Comparative Codon Usage Bias Analysis Across Seven Mygalomorphae Species

by Qingbin Zhan, Yin Tang, Yang Zhao, Senlin Hou, Yalin Huang, Xiaoyan Zhao, Yunxia Chen and Xiaoming Xue

Biology 2026, 15(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15010016 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Tarantulas (family Theraphosidae) are ecologically significant invertebrate predators in terrestrial ecosystems, but many species face threats from habitat fragmentation and unsustainable collection for the international pet trade. Brachypelma albiceps, a CITES Appendix II-listed species, lacks comprehensive mitochondrial genome characterization, limiting phylogenetic and evolutionary studies. Here, we report a complete mitochondrial genome sequence for B. albiceps (13,856 bp; GC content 32.84%) and provide detailed annotation. The genome exhibits typical metazoan mitochondrial organization, containing 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs, with an AT-rich nucleotide composition (67.16%) characteristic of arthropod mitochondria. Comparative analyses of B. albiceps and six other Mygalomorphae species revealed strong biases toward A/T-ending codons and avoidance of G/C-ending codons. ENC–GC3s, neutrality, and PR2 analyses consistently indicate that natural selection plays a dominant role in shaping synonymous codon usage, with mutation pressure also contributing. Phylogenetic reconstruction based on 10 high-quality mitochondrial protein-coding genes from 23 spider species confirmed the placement of B. albiceps within the family Theraphosidae and its close phylogenetic relationship to Cyriopagopus species. These results provide valuable genomic resources for the Theraphosidae systematics, enhance our understanding of codon bias evolution, and provide critical DNA barcode data for forensic identification of CITES-regulated specimens in the illegal wildlife trade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Wildlife Conservation, Management and Biological Research)

15 pages, 436 KB

Open AccessReview

Endoscopic Tattooing Using Indocyanine Green (ICG) Fluorescence for Intraoperative Guidance in Colorectal Surgery: Review of the Literature

by Fotios Seretis, Antonia Panagaki, Georgios Tziatzios, Paraskevas Gkolfakis, Evdokia Romanou, Vasilis Papastergiou, Andreas Theodorou, Andreas Kapiris, Dimitrios Theodorou, Tania Triantafyllou, Stylianos Kapiris and Konstantina Paraskeva

Cancers 2026, 18(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers18010022 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Accurate endoscopic lesion localization is crucial for planning and performing curative-intent surgery in colorectal cancer management. The use of indocyanine green (ICG) has been described as a novel alternative for colorectal lesion marking. Materials and Methods: We have performed a systematic review of the literature on the use of ICG-based tattooing for patients with colorectal cancer undergoing surgery. Results: A total of 19 studies were identified. Seven studies reposted the rates of successful intraoperative localization following ICG tattooing. Additionally, six studies provided detailed descriptions of the administration protocols, including both timing and dosage. A total of twelve studies described the utility of ICG-based tattooing for subsequent lymphadenectomy and its oncologic implications. Lymphadenectomy under fluorescent guidance was associated with increased lymph node yields as well as a change to the surgical lymphadenectomy plan in a significant proportion of patients. Conclusions: ICG-based endoscopic tattooing has demonstrated significant value in facilitating precise lesion localization during curative-intent colorectal surgery. Moreover, its use has been extended to guiding lymphadenectomy, with reports indicating improved lymph node yields. Nevertheless, further research is required to standardize protocols and address existing limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Concepts in Gastrointestinal Surgical Oncology)

24 pages, 8921 KB

Open AccessArticle

Crack Development and Healing in Guar Gum Polymer–Modified Silty Clay Under Natural Wetting–Drying Cycles

by Wanxin Hou, Xiyan Jiang, Xu Wang, Dameng Wang and Daye Du

Polymers 2026, 18(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010013 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the evolution characteristics of fissure networks in cohesive soils under wetting–drying cycle conditions with varying guar gum content. Four wetting–drying cycles were conducted under outdoor natural conditions, with real-time monitoring of changes in the surface crack network during drying and wetting. Geometric parameters—including surface crack density, width, connectivity coefficient, shape coefficient, and crack depth ratio—were quantitatively analyzed using digital image processing software. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to reveal the mechanisms of microstructural improvement. Results indicate that as wetting–drying cycles increase, the fracture network progressively simplifies, with fracture density and fractal dimension decreasing while fracture width increases. The incorporation of guar gum reduced the crack depth ratio to approximately 0.62 times that of undamaged soil. The average crack width decreased from 2.69 mm to 2.16 mm during the fourth wet-dry cycle, whilst the connectivity coefficient and shape coefficient stabilized. SEM analysis indicated that guar gum promoted “bonded bridging” structures between soil particles, while XRD results confirmed no alteration in the mineral composition of the soil. The study demonstrates that the addition of guar gum enhances soil crack resistance and stability, providing theoretical support for the ecological protection of clayey slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

16 pages, 320 KB

Open AccessArticle

Falls, Frailty and Quality of Life Among Individuals on a Regular Haemodialysis Programme: Implications for Rehabilitation Nursing

by Marisa Patrícia de Almeida Martins, Ana da Conceição Alves Faria, Carla Gomes da Rocha, Elaine Forte, Letícia de Lima Trindade, Samuel Spiegelberg Zuge, Maria Narcisa da Costa Gonçalves and Olga Maria Pimenta Lopes Ribeiro

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2026, 23(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph23010015 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Background: Chronic kidney disease and haemodialysis treatment are associated with physiological and functional alterations that compromise postural stability, favouring frailty and the risk of falls. These conditions directly affect the quality of life and autonomy of people undergoing haemodialysis, constituting an important challenge for rehabilitation nursing. In this sense, the aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between falls, frailty and quality of life in people with chronic kidney disease on a regular haemodialysis programme, identifying implications for rehabilitation nursing care. Methods: This was a quantitative, observational and cross-sectional study conducted with 62 participants from a haemodialysis unit in northern Portugal. The Tilburg Frailty Indicator and the Kidney Disease Quality of Life Instrument (KDQOL-SF™ 1.3) were applied. Statistical analysis used parametric and non-parametric tests, considering a significance level of p < 0.05. Results: The prevalence of falls in the year preceding the data collection was 32.2%, and the prevalence of frailty was 40.3%. A significant association was found between frailty and falls (p = 0.038) and between sex and falls (p = 0.002). The dimensions Symptoms/problems and Effects of kidney disease on daily life showed lower scores among participants with falls (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Frailty and poorer illness perception were associated with the occurrence of falls and with lower quality of life. Comprehensive assessment and the implementation of rehabilitation programmes led by specialist nurses in rehabilitation nursing are essential to promote functionality, safety and autonomy in people undergoing haemodialysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Much Exercise Is Enough? The Role of Physical Activity or Exercise in the Prevention and Treatment of Noncommunicable Diseases)

29 pages, 1864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal and Cross-Shore Characterization of Sediments Along the Ferrara Coastal Area (NW Adriatic Sea, Italy)

by Joana Buoninsegni, Antonello Aquilano, Elena Marrocchino and Carmela Vaccaro

Environments 2026, 13(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13010004 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study provides a seasonal and cross-shore characterization of sediments along the Ferrara coastal area (Italy). Four sites (Goro, Volano, Estensi, and Spina) were investigated through an integrated approach including textural and geochemical analyses. Surface sediments were sampled seasonally from summer 2023 to summer 2024 and analyzed to determine granulometry, major oxides composition, carbonate content, and potentially toxic element (PTE) contents. Results revealed that both grain-size and geochemistry vary seasonally and along the cross-shore profile, reflecting the combined effects of hydrodynamic forcing, sediment transport, and fluvial inputs. Elevated contents of Ce, Cr, La, V, and Zr were detected at various sites, seasons, and geomorphological zones. In some cases, the environmental quality indices applied allowed the sediments to be classified as polluted. Furthermore, some exceedances of the legal limits for Cr and V contents were observed at Goro and Volano. These pollution levels are attributable to the presence of PTE-bearing minerals originating from the source basins (geogenic sources). Overall, the results highlight the interplay between hydrodynamics and sediment provenance, emphasizing the dominance of geogenic contributions along the northern Adriatic coast, providing updated geochemical data for future monitoring and environmental management of coastal systems. Full article

17 pages, 6215 KB

Open AccessArticle

Texture and Flexural Fatigue Resistance Governed by Surface-Dependent Deformation and Recrystallization in the Copper Foils

by Tong Wu, Guohao Liu, Di Liu, Bingxing Wang, Bin Wang and Yong Tian

Nanomaterials 2026, 16(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano16010011 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

High-flexibility copper foils are critical for reliable flexible interconnects and displays. In this work, commercial-purity copper belts were processed by triple-layer stacked cold rolling to ultrathin foils, producing distinct surface- and layer-dependent deformation structures in the bright, matte, and central-interface layers; subsequent annealing at 600 °C then promoted orientation-selective recrystallization. Under the present conditions, the center-interface layer of the triple-rolled foil achieved the highest flexural-fatigue life (≈8.0 × 10⁴ cycles) within a window of cube ≈ 30–45% and grain size ≈ 40–60 μm. In this regime, grain-size control stabilizes intergranular slip compatibility, reduces elastic–plastic mismatch, and mitigates strain localization during cyclic bending. Even without aggressive cube enrichment, high flexural fatigue resistance can likewise be achieved through deliberate control of grain size. These findings establish a clear processing–microstructure–property linkage and indicate that layer-dependent control of texture and grain size can enhance flexural-fatigue performance in triple-layer stacked-rolled copper foils for flexible electronics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Nanomaterials for Enhanced Steel and Alloy Performance)

20 pages, 825 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle-Induced Neurotoxicity: Underlying Molecular Mechanisms and Future Perspectives

by Chun Chen, Xingyao Pei, Yonger Yu, Chang Gao, Jinran Wang, Rongyao Zhu, Shuxuan Liu, Shusheng Tang and Daowen Li

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010011 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

The expanding application of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in consumer products, medicine, and the food industry has raised significant concerns regarding their potential neurotoxicity. This review synthesizes current understanding of the pathways by which ZnO NPs gain access to the central nervous system (CNS), their resulting neurotoxic effects, and the underlying molecular mechanisms. These nanoparticles primarily breach the CNS via translocation across the blood–brain barrier, axonal transport along sensory nerves, and disruption of the microbiota–gut–brain axis. Upon entry, ZnO NPs induce behavioral deficits, including impaired learning, memory, and motor function, alongside pathological brain damage. The neurotoxicity is driven by a multi-faceted mechanism involving mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, energy depletion, and neuroinflammation, often triggered by the release of Zn²⁺ ions. Furthermore, ZnO NPs can activate diverse cell death pathways, including apoptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. Critically, their neurotoxic potential is intrinsically linked to their physicochemical properties, such as size and shape. Emerging evidence also suggests that ZnO NP exposure may promote the aggregation of pathological proteins like Tau, thereby potentially increasing the risk for neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we discuss potential mitigation strategies, such as surface modification and intervention with natural compounds. This review underscores the need for a refined risk assessment of ZnO NPs to ensure their safe deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: Mechanism Exploration and Risk Assessment)

24 pages, 6103 KB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation of Traditional Silicate Glass and Protective Coatings Under Simulated Unsheltered Conditions

by Sofia Schiattone, Elisabetta Tomiato, Elena Bernardi, Martina Zangari, Tommaso Salzillo, Mariangela Vandini and Cristina Chiavari

Heritage 2026, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage9010002 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Abstract

Outdoor glass is subject to degradation due to environmental factors, which alter its physical and chemical properties depending on the exposure conditions. Studying glass weathering and the effectiveness and durability of conservation treatments is necessary for developing optimal conservation strategies for glass heritage objects. Here, an accelerated aging protocol based on actual environmental data is successfully employed to replicate weathering caused by rain runoff, temperature, humidity and UVA radiation in unsheltered conditions. Two types of silicate glass with traditional compositions were artificially aged to investigate the corrosion processes and produce representative weathered substrates for applying and aging protective treatments. The performance of two recently marketed Siox-5 sol–gel systems was compared with that of Paraloid B72. Glass specimens, as well as leaching rain solutions, were analyzed with different techniques, including SEM/EDS, FTIR-ATR, color measurements and MP-AES. The composition of the glass influences weathering patterns, which in turn affect coating adhesion and overall performance. Sol–gel coatings demonstrate good chemical stability and tend to adhere more effectively to degraded surfaces than to well-preserved ones. The coatings exhibit varying degrees of sensitivity to environmental factors, with one of the sol–gel systems generally performing better than the others under the considered exposure conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue History, Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage)

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