Influence of Hydrogen Electron Donor, Alkaline pH, and High Nitrate Concentrations on Microbial Denitrification: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Definition and Biochemical Aspects of Denitrification
3. Influence of High Nitrate Concentration on Denitrification
3.1. Regulation of Denitrification, Nitrite Accumulation
3.2. High Nitrate Concentrations Reported in the Literature
4. Hydrogenotrophic Metabolism and Interactions with Denitrification
4.1. Hydrogen Oxidation Catalyzed by Hydrogenase Enzymes
4.2. Mineral Carbon Assimilation
- -
- the reductive pentose phosphate (Calvin–Benson) cycle [94]
- -
- the reductive acetyl-CoA (Wood–Ljungdahl) pathway
- -
- the reductive citric acid cycle, the 3-hydroxypropionate bicycle
- -
- the dicarboxylate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle
- -
- the 3-hydroxypropionate/ 4-hydroxybutyrate cycle.
4.3. Comparison between hydrogenotrophic and heterotrophic denitrification
5. Influence of High pH on Denitrification
5.1. Basics of pH Effect on Denitrification
5.2. Bacterial Adaptations to Alkaline pH
6. Perspectives, Denitrification at Alkaline pH, with High Nitrate Concentration and with Hydrogen as Electron Source
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
FNR | Fumarate and Nitrate reductase Regulatory (also NarR, NnrR and FnrP) |
UQ | Ubiquinone |
NAD+ | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide |
FAD+ | Flavin adenine dinucleotide |
ATP | Adenosine triphosphate |
Cyt. c | Cytochrome c |
Nar | Nitrate reductase (NarGHI, NapAB and NasA are also different nitrate reductases) |
Nir | Nitrite reductase (NirS and NiK are different nitrite reductases) |
Nor | Nitric oxide reductase |
Nos | Nitrous oxide reductase |
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Experimental Protocol | Acclimation Procedure | Nitrate (In Culture) | Nitrite Build-Up | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ca increase from 50 to 550 g/L at 45 mM nitrate, pH 8.5 | Medium diluted x2 during 2 weeks | 45 mM | max 2.5 mM | [6] |
Nitrate increase to 580 mM and ionic strength from 0.8 to 3.0 in SBR, pH 9 | Stepwise nitrate increase from 100 mM to 580 mM in about 6 weeks | 100 mM 215 mM 300 mM | 70 mM 140 mM 240 mM | [63] |
Test at 140 mM nitrate in a batch reactor, pH 9/ Nitrate increase to 1000 mM in a continuous reactor | Stepwise nitrate increase Preculture: 14 mM to 140 mM in 5 weeks Culture: 140 to 1000 mM in 14 weeks | 140 mM | 50 mM 1 | [65] |
Nitrate increase to 640 mM in SBR | Step-wise nitrate increase in the medium from 120 mM to 640 mM in 8 weeks | 430 mM 290 mM 120 mM 60 mM | 420 mM 290 mM 60 mM 0 mM | [59] |
NaCl stress decrease from 11 to 0 % at 430 mM, in continuous reactor | Stepwise nitrate increase from 140 mM to 430 in 3 weeks | 430 mM (influent) | 70–360 mM (effluent) | [64] |
pH increase from pH 7.5 to 12 in SBR | Step-wise pH increase from 7.5 to 11.5 in 8 weeks | 60 mM | 30–55 mM (high pH) | [66] |
Phylum | Specie, Genus | Hydrogenase | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Crenarchaeota (Archaea) | Thermoproteus neutrophilus | [NiFe] | [73] |
Euryarchaeota (Archaea) | Methanothermobacter marburgensis Thermococcus sp. | [Fe], [NiFe] | [74] [75] |
Actinobacteria | Streptomyces avermitilis | [NiFe] | [76] |
Aquificae | Aquifex aeolicus | [NiFe] | [77] |
Chloroflexi | Thermomicrobium roseum | [NiFe], [FeFe] | [78] |
Cyanobacteria | Synechocystis sp. | [NiFe] | [79] |
Firmicutes | Clostridium sp. | [NiFe],[FeFe] | [80] |
Proteobacteria | Paracoccus denitrificans Thauera sp. Hydrogenophaga sp. Pseudomonas stutzeri Escherichia coli Ralstonia eutropha Rhodopseudomonas palustris | [NiFe], [FeFe] | [81,82] [83] [84,85] [50] [86] [69,87] [88] |
Thermotogae | Thermotoga maritima | [FeFe] | [89] |
Spirochaetes | Treponema primitia | [FeFe] | [90] |
Inoculum | Experimental Set-Up | pH | Nitrate mM | Nitrate Maximal Reduction Rate | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Activated sludge | Continuous reactor, heterotrophy or hydrogenotrophy | 6.5–8.7 | 0.8–2.3 | ND | [105] |
Consortium | Pressured Batch reactor | 7.1 | 0.07–0.7 | 356.4 mM/d | [102] |
Alcaligenes eutrophus | Continuous and batch reactors | 7.1–9 | 1.8–3.2 | 50.0 mM/d | [27] |
Paraccocus denitrificans | Semi-batch reactors | 6.5–9.5 | 40 | 8.4 mM/gDW/d 1 | [106] |
Activated sludge | Batch reactors | 6.4–7 | 0.5–14.3 | 5.5 mM/d | [104] |
Activated sludge | Batch and continuous reactors | ND | 14 | 1.3 mM/d | [25] |
Activated sludge | Continuous reactor | 7–9.5 | 1 | 31 mM/d | [107] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 7–9.5 | 1.4 | 27.4 mM/d | [101] |
Equivalents | [HCO3−]produced ⇔ 7/8 [NO3−]reduced [CO32−] produced ⇔ 3/8 [NO3−]reduced |
Final carbonate concentrations | [CO32−]final = [CO32−]initial + [CO32−]produced = [CO32−]initial + 3/8 [NO3−]reduced [HCO3−]final = [HCO3−]initial + [HCO3−]produced = [HCO3−]initial + 7/8 [NO3−]reduced |
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation | |
Final equation |
Equivalents | [HCO3−]consumed ⇔ [OH−]produced ⇔ [NO3−]reduced [CO32−]produced ⇔ [OH−]produced ⇔ [NO3−]reduced |
Final carbonate concentrations | [CO32−]final= [CO32−]initial + [CO32−]produced = [CO32−]initial + [NO3−]reduced [HCO3−]final= [HCO3−]initial – [HCO3−]consumed = [HCO3−]initial – [NO3−]reduced |
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation | |
Final equation1 |
Inoculum | Experimental Set-Up | pH | Nitrate mM | Nitrate Maximal Reduction Rate | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
P. denitrificans | Batch reactor | ND | 17 | 36 mM/d | [110] |
P. denitrificans | Batch reactor, an/aerobic transition | 5.5–9.5 | 25 | 60 mM/d | [43] |
P. denitrificans | Batch reactor, high cell density | 6.4–9.2 | 25 | 4887 mM/d | [44] |
P. denitrificans | Continuous reactor an/aerobic transition | 6.8–7.5 | 25 | 6 mM/d | [58] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 6.5–9 | 192 | 600 mM/d | [47] |
Activated sludge | Batch reactor | 10–12 | 15 | 2 mM/d | [54] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 7.2 | 120–645 | 1710 mM/d | [59] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 7.5–12 | 120 | 1177 mM/d | [66] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 7.5–9 | 192–580 | 564 mM/d | [63] |
Bacillus halodenitrificans | Batch reactor | 7.5–9 | 1006 | ND | [9] |
Activated sludge | Sequencing batch reactors | 8.5 | 42 | 137 mM/d | [6] |
Activated sludge | Expanded granular sludge bed | 6–8 | 142–1000 | 99.9 % removal efficiency | [65] |
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Albina, P.; Durban, N.; Bertron, A.; Albrecht, A.; Robinet, J.-C.; Erable, B. Influence of Hydrogen Electron Donor, Alkaline pH, and High Nitrate Concentrations on Microbial Denitrification: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 5163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20205163
Albina P, Durban N, Bertron A, Albrecht A, Robinet J-C, Erable B. Influence of Hydrogen Electron Donor, Alkaline pH, and High Nitrate Concentrations on Microbial Denitrification: A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2019; 20(20):5163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20205163
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlbina, Pierre, Nadège Durban, Alexandra Bertron, Achim Albrecht, Jean-Charles Robinet, and Benjamin Erable. 2019. "Influence of Hydrogen Electron Donor, Alkaline pH, and High Nitrate Concentrations on Microbial Denitrification: A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 20: 5163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20205163