Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Quantum Key Distribution Systems and Networks
2.1. Discrete Variable Systems
2.2. Continuous Variable Systems
2.3. Quantum Security and Practical Vulnerability Issues
2.4. QKD Networking
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- High-isolation (> 100 dB) wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) of quantum and classical channels to remove crosstalk generated by classical channels and spontaneous emission noise generated by optical amplifiers from the quantum channel band.
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- A proper wavelength plan to minimize the transfer of linear and non-linear noise from classical channels into quantum channels.
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- Optical bypass of quantum channels in optical amplifiers and other non-quantum-compatible devices.
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- Signal-format transparent and independent optical switching for quantum and classical channels.
2.5. Closing Remarks on QKD Systems
3. Devices for QKD Systems
3.1. Photon Sources
3.2. Detectors
3.3. Quantum Random Number Generators
3.4. Quantum Repeaters
3.5. Technology Status Summary
4. QKD Applications
4.1. Long-Range Fiber Communication
4.2. Aerospace Communication
4.3. Internet of Things
4.4. Data Center Infrastructure
4.5. Quantum Applications Summary
5. QKD Market Perspectives
6. Industrial Roadmap
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- Within 3-years: standards and certification methodologies for QRNG and QKD; development of use cases and business models; cost-effective systems for inter-city and intra-city communications; protocols for the security of long-lived systems and secret sharing, exploiting quantum and classical cryptographic techniques; protocol execution over an elementary quantum repeater link using an integrated control plane and platform-independent software stack; improved device performance addressing parameter benchmarks of relevance for cryptography and network applications.
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- Within 6–10 years: Advanced QKD and QRNG systems for critical infrastructure, IoT, and 5G; trusted-node network functionality and interoperability for fiber, free-space, and satellite links; end-to-end security over trusted nodes and eventually repeaters between countries; integration of at least three physically distant quantum repeaters over telecom fiber, demonstrating key generation over more than 500 km; demonstrations of entanglement-based network application and satellite-based links; showcase of a network of physically distant processing nodes (e.g., in the quantum memory), with at least 20 qubits per node and programmable in platform-independent software.
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- A comprehensive public program for the deployment of a QKD infrastructure is being pursued by China, and comprises a ~2000 km Beijing–Shanghai quantum backbone, four metropolitan networks, a ~50km free air link, and a quantum satellite for intercontinental communications.
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- The government of South Korea is funding the development of a ~250 km quantum backbone connecting existing metropolitan quantum networks.
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- Australia is implementing a government quantum network for intra-governmental communications in Canberra.
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- In South Africa, a quantum communication security solution has been deployed in Durban’s municipal fiber-optic network.
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- In Japan, several industrial and public partners have jointly developed an extensive quantum network in Tokyo.
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- Besides China, satellite-based quantum communications are also currently being investigated in Japan, Canada, and the United States. In 2007m the European Space Agency published a review paper on its activity in this field, comprising a feasibility study for the placement of an entangled photon source on the International Space Station.
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- In the United States, a fiber-based QKD infrastructure has been in development since 2003, with a Defense Advanced Research Projects (DARPA) funded project, and several players, both public (Department of Commerce with NIST, Department of Energy with Los Alamos Labs) and private companies (mostly from the defense and aerospace sectors, e.g., Magiq, BBN Raytheon, Boeing, Batelle), are accumulating intellectual property and expertise, in some cases complemented by field deployments.
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- A real-world application of QKD was demonstrated in Austria in 2004. In 2007, in Switzerland the canton of Geneva transmitted ballot results using a QKD link.
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- A high point in European research towards practical application of quantum cryptography was achieved in 2004–2008 with the SECOQC FP6 project, which involved several academic as well as industrial partners. However, some European companies seem to have now reduced their engagement.
7. Standardization of QKD Systems
8. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Date | State/Company | Distance (km) | Rate/Wavelength (Gbit/s)/nm | Quantum Wavelength (nm) | Code Rate (bit/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1997 | United Kingdom/ British Telecom | 28 | 1.2/1550 | 1300 | - |
2009 | Sweden/Gotheburg University | 50 | -/1550 | 1550 | 11 |
2012 | United Kingdom/ Cambridge University | 50 | 1/1571–1611 | 1550 | 507 k |
2016 | United Kingdom/ Cambridge University | 50 | 100/1547 | 1529 | 1.2 M |
2017 | China/China Telecom Corporation | 80–117 | 80 × 100/1550 | 1310 | 1.6 k–1 k |
2018 | China/China Unicom | 66 | 3600/1550 | 1310 | 4.5 k |
Devices | Protocols | Medium | Cost | Distance | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Integrated | DV-QKD CV-QKD | In Air | Low | Short (1–10 m) | Internet of Things, Contactless payment |
Bulky/Integrated Weak pulses | DV-QKD Decosy states MDI Pol. Enc. | In Air | Medium | High (2000–35000+ km) | Space Communications |
Bulky/Integrated Weak pulses | DV-QKD Decoy states MDI Pol. Enc. CV-QKD | In Fiber | Medium | Medium (10–100 km) | Inter Database communications, Short reach meshed networks |
Bulky Cryogenic Temp. | DV-QKD MDI One Time Pad | In Fiber In Air | High | Medium/high (10–1000 km) | Critical infrastructure management |
Bulky/Integrated Weak pulses | DV-QKD CV-QKD | In Fiber | Medium | Medium | Wide area network |
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Cavaliere, F.; Prati, E.; Poti, L.; Muhammad, I.; Catuogno, T. Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets. Quantum Rep. 2020, 2, 80-106. https://doi.org/10.3390/quantum2010007
Cavaliere F, Prati E, Poti L, Muhammad I, Catuogno T. Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets. Quantum Reports. 2020; 2(1):80-106. https://doi.org/10.3390/quantum2010007
Chicago/Turabian StyleCavaliere, Fabio, Enrico Prati, Luca Poti, Imran Muhammad, and Tommaso Catuogno. 2020. "Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets" Quantum Reports 2, no. 1: 80-106. https://doi.org/10.3390/quantum2010007