Valorization of Cattle Slaughtering Industry By-Products: Modification of the Functional Properties and Structural Characteristics of Cowhide Gelatin Induced by High Hydrostatic Pressure
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Functional Characteristics
2.1.1. Gel Strength
2.1.2. Solubility
2.1.3. Emulsifying Activity Index (EAI) and Emulsifying Stability Index (ESI)
2.1.4. Foam Expansion (FE) and Foam Stability (FS)
2.2. Secondary Structure
2.3. Intermolecular Force
2.3.1. Hydrophobic Interactions
2.3.2. Disulfide Bonds
2.3.3. Electrostatic Interactions
2.3.4. Hydrogen Bonds
2.4. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3. Conclusions
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Materials
4.2. Functional Characteristics
4.2.1. Gel Strength and Solubility
4.2.2. Emulsifying and Foaming Properties
4.3. Secondary Structure
4.4. Intermolecular Force
4.4.1. Hydrophobic Interactions (Surface Hydrophobicity) and Disulfide Bonds (Total Sulfhydryl Groups and Active Sulfhydryl)
4.4.2. Electrostatic Interactions (Zeta Potentials) and Hydrogen Bonds (Raman Spectra)
4.5. Statistical Analysis
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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P (MPa) | T (min) | S.E | Sig. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | P | T | I | ||
α-helix (%) | |||||||||
0 | 13.52 Aa ± 0.24 | 13.52 Aa ± 0.24 | 13.52 Aa ± 0.24 | 13.52 Aa ± 0.24 | 13.52 Aa ± 0.24 | <0.01 | ** | ** | ** |
200 | 10.27 Ba ± 0.18 | 9.79 Bb ± 0.23 | 9.38 Bbc ± 0.43 | 9.11 Bc ± 0.21 | 8.69 Bd ± 0.19 | ||||
250 | 9.53 Ca ± 0.19 | 8.95 Cb ± 0.14 | 8.23 Cc ± 0.23 | 7.93 Cc ± 0.25 | 7.63 Cd ± 0.31 | ||||
300 | 8.38 Da ± 0.11 | 7.87 Db ± 0.21 | 7.42 Dbc ± 0.24 | 7.12 Dc ± 0.21 | 6.94 Dc ± 0.29 | ||||
350 | 6.84 Fa ± 0.33 | 6.75 Ea ± 0.19 | 6.21 Eb ± 0.29 | 6.27 Eb ± 0.15 | 6.22 Eb ± 0.31 | ||||
400 | 7.89 Ea ± 0.22 | 7.61 Dab ± 0.32 | 7.12 Db ± 0.15 | 7.35 Db ± 0.17 | 7.13 Db ± 0.26 | ||||
β-sheet (%) | |||||||||
0 | 58.38 Ea ± 1.32 | 58.38 Ea ± 1.32 | 58.38 Ea ± 1.32 | 58.38 Ea ± 1.32 | 58.38 Ea ± 1.32 | <0.01 | ** | ** | ** |
200 | 65.29 De ± 0.27 | 66.97 Dd ± 0.35 | 67.93 Dc ± 0.23 | 68.39 Db ± 0.22 | 69.21 Da ± 0.43 | ||||
250 | 67.31 Ce ± 0.35 | 68.99 Cd ± 0.31 | 70.24 Cc ± 0.45 | 71.13 Cb ± 0.28 | 71.99 Ca ± 0.31 | ||||
300 | 70.27 Bd ± 0.41 | 71.31 Bc ± 0.39 | 72.25 Bb ± 0.52 | 73.23 Ba ± 0.41 | 74.14 Ba ± 0.56 | ||||
350 | 74.17 Ac ± 0.39 | 76.26 Ab ± 0.48 | 76.17 Ab ± 0.44 | 76.52 Ab ± 0.34 | 77.52 Aa ± 0.39 | ||||
400 | 74.19 Ad ± 0.49 | 75.37 Ac ± 0.41 | 75.91 Abc ± 0.36 | 76.21 Ab ± 0.38 | 77.36 Aa ± 0.45 | ||||
β-turn (%) | |||||||||
0 | 16.48 Aa ± 0.23 | 16.48 Aa ± 0.23 | 16.48 Aa ± 0.23 | 16.48 Aa ± 0.23 | 16.48 Aa ± 0.23 | <0.01 | ** | * | ** |
200 | 11.69 Ba ± 0.52 | 10.38 Bb ± 0.58 | 9.87 Bb ± 0.72 | 9.32 Bb ± 0.49 | 9.03 Bb ± 0.68 | ||||
250 | 9.82 Ca ± 0.21 | 8.21 Cb ± 0.29 | 7.56 Cc ± 0.35 | 7.21 Cc ± 0.42 | 7.09 Cc ± 0.54 | ||||
300 | 7.79 Da ± 0.19 | 6.58 Db ± 0.22 | 5.94 Dc ± 0.32 | 5.25 Dd ± 0.33 | 5.11 Dd ± 0.32 | ||||
350 | 6.83 Ea ± 0.14 | 5.23 Eb ± 0.16 | 4.61 Ec ± 0.26 | 4.42 Ec ± 0.32 | 4.02 Ed ± 0.33 | ||||
400 | 6.79 Ea ± 0.12 | 5.33 Eb ± 0.15 | 4.63 Ec ± 0.23 | 4.45 Ec ± 0.27 | 4.03 Ed ± 0.12 | ||||
random coiling (%) | |||||||||
0 | 11.62 Da ± 0.27 | 11.62 Ca ± 0.27 | 11.62 Ea ± 0.27 | 11.62 Da ± 0.27 | 11.62 Ca ± 0.27 | <0.01 | ** | n.s | * |
200 | 12.75 Cb ± 0.19 | 12.86 Bb ± 0.14 | 12.82 Cb ± 0.12 | 13.18 Ca ± 0.17 | 13.07 Bab ± 0.15 | ||||
250 | 13.34 Bc ± 0.11 | 13.85 Aa ± 0.31 | 13.97 Ba ± 0.16 | 13.73 Ba ± 0.11 | 13.69 Ab ± 0.11 | ||||
300 | 13.56 Ab ± 0.14 | 14.24 Aa ± 0.18 | 14.29 Aa ± 0.15 | 14.4 Aa ± 0.14 | 13.81 Ab ± 0.13 | ||||
350 | 12.16 Cc ± 0.21 | 11.76 Cd ± 0.12 | 13.01 Ca ± 0.13 | 13.09 Ca ± 0.12 | 12.74 Bb ± 0.22 | ||||
400 | 11.13 Ed ± 0.12 | 11.69 Cc ± 0.14 | 12.34 Da ± 0.12 | 11.99 Db ± 0.13 | 11.48 Cc ± 0.14 |
P (MPa) | T (min) | S.E | Sig. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | P | T | I | ||
I850/I830 | |||||||||
0 | 0.9241 Ea ± 0.0012 | 0.9241 Ea ± 0.0012 | 0.9241 Ea ± 0.0012 | 0.9241 Ca ± 0.0012 | 0.9241 Da ± 0.0012 | <0.01 | ** | ** | ** |
200 | 1.0030 Cd ± 0.0001 | 1.0040 Cc ± 0.0008 | 1.0078 Da ± 0.0009 | 1.0056 Bb ± 0.0002 | 1.0023 Be ± 0.0021 | ||||
250 | 1.0064 Bb ± 0.0008 | 1.0077 Ba ± 0.0003 | 1.0090 Ca ± 0.0014 | 1.0062 Ab ± 0.0001 | 1.0045 Bc ± 0.0007 | ||||
300 | 1.0096 Ac ± 0.0003 | 1.0119 Ab ± 0.0006 | 1.0132 Aa ± 0.0003 | 1.0061 Ae ± 0.0002 | 1.0075 Ad ± 0.0011 | ||||
350 | 0.9495 Dd ± 0.0005 | 0.9443 Dd ± 0.0013 | 1.0091 Ba ± 0.0022 | 1.0058 ABb ± 0.0009 | 0.9782 Cc ± 0.0014 | ||||
400 | 0.8902 Fab ± 0.0007 | 0.8823 Fd ± 0.0004 | 0.8911 Fa ± 0.0003 | 0.8901 Db ± 0.0003 | 0.8891 Ec ± 0.0006 | ||||
Nexposed | |||||||||
0 | 0.5655 Ea ± 0.0002 | 0.5655 Ea ± 0.0002 | 0.5655 Da ± 0.0002 | 0.5655 Ca ± 0.0002 | 0.5655 Ea ± 0.0002 | <0.01 | ** | ** | ** |
200 | 0.6707 Cd ± 0.0003 | 0.6721 Cc ± 0.0003 | 0.6771 Ca ± 0.0004 | 0.6741 Bb ± 0.0003 | 0.6697 Ce ± 0.0005 | ||||
250 | 0.6752 Bc ± 0.0001 | 0.6770 Bb ± 0.0001 | 0.6787 Ba ± 0.0003 | 0.6750 Ac ± 0.0001 | 0.6726 Bd ± 0.0003 | ||||
300 | 0.6795 Ac ± 0.0002 | 0.6826 Ab ± 0.0004 | 0.6842 Aa ± 0.0001 | 0.6748 Ae ± 0.0004 | 0.6767 Ad ± 0.0004 | ||||
350 | 0.5993 Dd ± 0.0004 | 0.5924 De ± 0.0011 | 0.6788 Ba ± 0.0002 | 0.6744 Bb ± 0.0002 | 0.6376 Dc ± 0.0002 | ||||
400 | 0.5203 Fb ± 0.0003 | 0.5097 Fd ± 0.0005 | 0.5215 Ea ± 0.0005 | 0.5201 Db ± 0.0005 | 0.5188 Fc ± 0.0004 | ||||
Nburied | |||||||||
0 | 0.4345 Ba ± 0.0004 | 0.4345 Ba ± 0.0004 | 0.4345 Ba ± 0.0004 | 0.4345 Ba ± 0.0004 | 0.4345 Ba ± 0.0004 | <0.01 | ** | ** | ** |
200 | 0.3293 Db ± 0.0003 | 0.3279 Dc ± 0.0002 | 0.3229 De ± 0.0005 | 0.3259 Cd ± 0.0003 | 0.3303 Da ± 0.0005 | ||||
250 | 0.3248 Eb ± 0.0003 | 0.3230 Ec ± 0.0004 | 0.3213 Ed ± 0.0005 | 0.3250 Db ± 0.0002 | 0.3274 Ea ± 0.0003 | ||||
300 | 0.3205 Fc ± 0.0006 | 0.3174 Fd ± 0.0003 | 0.3158 Ce ± 0.0006 | 0.3252 Da ± 0.0001 | 0.3233 Fb ± 0.0004 | ||||
350 | 0.4007 Cb ± 0.0008 | 0.4076 Ca ± 0.0002 | 0.3212 Ee ± 0.0002 | 0.3256 Cd ± 0.0002 | 0.3624 Cc ± 0.0003 | ||||
400 | 0.4797 Ac ± 0.0005 | 0.4903 Aa ± 0.0003 | 0.4785 Ad ± 0.0003 | 0.4799 Ac ± 0.0003 | 0.4812 Ab ± 0.0002 |
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Gao, Y.; Wang, L.; Qiu, Y.; Fan, X.; Zhang, L.; Yu, Q. Valorization of Cattle Slaughtering Industry By-Products: Modification of the Functional Properties and Structural Characteristics of Cowhide Gelatin Induced by High Hydrostatic Pressure. Gels 2022, 8, 243. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8040243
Gao Y, Wang L, Qiu Y, Fan X, Zhang L, Yu Q. Valorization of Cattle Slaughtering Industry By-Products: Modification of the Functional Properties and Structural Characteristics of Cowhide Gelatin Induced by High Hydrostatic Pressure. Gels. 2022; 8(4):243. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8040243
Chicago/Turabian StyleGao, Yanlei, Liyuan Wang, Yi Qiu, Xiaona Fan, Li Zhang, and Qunli Yu. 2022. "Valorization of Cattle Slaughtering Industry By-Products: Modification of the Functional Properties and Structural Characteristics of Cowhide Gelatin Induced by High Hydrostatic Pressure" Gels 8, no. 4: 243. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8040243