Next Article in Journal
Chest Imaging in Systemic Endemic Mycoses
Next Article in Special Issue
Epidemiologic Aspects of Mycetoma in Africa
Previous Article in Journal
Sterylglucosides in Fungi
Previous Article in Special Issue
Coccidioides Species: A Review of Basic Research: 2022
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JoF
Volume 8
Issue 11
10.3390/jof8111131
jof-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Quantifying Deaths from Aspergillosis in HIV Positive People

by
David W. Denning
1,2,* and
Ellen Frances Morgan
3
1
Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
2
Global Action for Fungal Infections (GAFFI), 1208 Geneva, Switzerland
3
School of Medicine, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Fungi 2022, 8(11), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111131
Submission received: 8 September 2022 / Revised: 10 October 2022 / Accepted: 21 October 2022 / Published: 27 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Immunology, Epidemiology, and Therapy of Fungal Infections: A Themed Issue Dedicated to Professor David A. Stevens)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Aspergillus spp. are ubiquitous and cause severe infections in immunocompromised patients. Less is known about its incidence and prognosis in patients with HIV/AIDS. We reviewed the mortality of invasive aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS patients. Pubmed, Embase and Medline databases were used to search for articles. Studies were excluded if they contained other aspergillosis risk factors, no original or patient survival data or were not in English. From 747 articles published, 54 studies and case reports were identified following reading, published between 1985 and 2021, with 54% papers prior to 2000 reporting 853 patients from 16 countries, none from Africa. 707 (83%) patients died with an average time from diagnosis to death of 77.5 days. Postmortem diagnosis was seen in 21% of deaths recorded. A national series from France of 242 cases of invasive aspergillosis diagnosed in life recorded a 3 month mortality of 68% pre-ART, falling to 31% after introduction of ART and voriconazole. CD4 count was recorded in 39 studies and ranged from 2 to >1000 cells/mm3; only 8 patients (1.8%) had a CD4 > 100 cells/mm3. Aspergillosis occurs in patients with HIV/AIDS and associated with high mortality but its slow progression should allow diagnosis and treatment with improved outcome.

1. Introduction

Aspergillus spp. cause several syndromes of aspergillosis of differing severity in humans [1]. Patients with advanced HIV disease (AHD) are at risk of aspergillosis, primarily invasive and the unusual obstructing bronchial forms, but also probably chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA). The lungs are involved in the majority of cases of invasive aspergillosis; however the heart, sinuses, kidneys and CNS can also be affected [2]. Allergic and superficial aspergillosis (onychomycosis, fungal keratitis, external otitis) appear to be rare in HIV-infected patients although fungal keratitis with HIV infection is more frequent [3]. Invasive aspergillosis may be acute as in neutropenic or transplant recipients, but also may be subacute—which is probably more common in those with AHD. Both these entities may be lethal as may be CPA.
We published the first major series of aspergillosis in 13 HIV-infected patients in 1991 and identified a subgroup of obstructing bronchial aspergillosis [4]. Major series of aspergillosis in HIV-infected patients since 2000 were published from USA in 2000 [5], France in 2002 [6], Italy in 2002 [7], Italy in 2009 [8], Japan [9], France [10] and Russia in 2021 [11]. The literature on aspergillosis and HIV infection has been reviewed in 1994 [12,13] in 2000 [5] and again in 2016 [2], but aside from general reviews, autopsy series and case reports, the literature has been relatively silent on this topic.
The incidence of invasive aspergillosis in AIDS was estimated at 3.5 cases per 1000 person years from a study of 35,252 HIV patients in a national database [5,14]. The results of another database search of 38 million hospital diagnoses showed aspergillosis was diagnosed in 0.43% of HIV patients [2,15]. Neutropenia is a known risk factor for invasive aspergillosis, and this can occur secondary to medications used for HIV patients [14]. Neutropenia or corticosteroid use has been identified in almost half of Aspergillosis infections in patients with HIV [14,16]. Other risk factors for aspergillosis infection in patients with HIV are concomitant Pneumocystis jirovecii (PCP) infection and a CD4 count of less than 50–100 cells/mm3 [17,18,19,20].
CPA usually complicates other pulmonary disease and only in 2017 was it shown that HIV positive patients also developed CPA [21] and that the pattern of infection was similar to HIV-negative patients [22]. Many people with unproven pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) (so called smear or GeneXpert negative TB) have CPA and not PTB [23,24], but are mis-treated and some will die as a result. From a clinical and radiological perspective, there is a substantial overlap between CPA and subacute invasive aspergillosis.
Compared with other invasive fungal infections (IFIs) less is known specifically about the incidence and prognosis of aspergillosis in patients with HIV/AIDS [8]. This is thought to be due to the difficulty in clinical diagnosis and the fact that many patients with aspergillosis remain undetected during their lifetime [8,25]. Many cases of aspergillosis are discovered post-mortem [8,25]. As such the overall impact that this fungus has on patients with HIV/AIDS is largely unknown. The aim of our work is therefore to systematically review the number of deaths in HIV/AIDS patients with aspergillosis.

2. Materials and Methods

The method of this review involved searching for articles published from 1985 to 2021 using Pubmed, Embase (Ovid) and Medline (Ovid) databases. Keywords surrounding three main concepts were used, these were ‘HIV/AIDS’, ‘aspergillosis’ and ‘Incidence of Deaths’. Articles including HIV/AIDS diagnosis, aspergillosis diagnosis with clinical outcome were included. Inclusion criteria involved documented cases of aspergillosis. Aspergillosis affecting any organ in the body was included. Cases were accepted as ‘aspergillosis’ if there was histopathological evidence of disease, radiological and microbiological evidence combined with other diagnoses excluded or controlled by treatment. In general, patients without an additional host factor for invasive aspergillosis as outlined by the EORTC/MSG criteria [26] were accepted as a probable case of invasive aspergillosis, if the radiological and microbiological criteria were fulfilled. No attempt was made to separate acute from subacute invasive aspergillosis or CPA. Articles including other risk factors for aspergillosis were excluded such as haematological malignancies and transplant patients, but previous or current corticosteroid use in HIV-infected patients was included as common in those with HIV. Articles were excluded if they were not original research, i.e., exclusion of other systematic reviews. Articles were also excluded if there was no confirmed diagnosis of HIV/AIDS. If an article did not include any follow up of individual cases or clear cohort data, i.e., no record of death or survival, then they were also excluded. The articles meeting the inclusion criteria were then transferred to EndNote reference manager for further analysis. Duplicates were then identified and removed. Initial screening of abstracts and titles were read and irrelevant papers removed. This was followed by a secondary screening of full texts of papers; those that were irretrievable or did not meet inclusion/exclusion criteria were removed. The results of these remaining papers formed the basis of this systematic review.

3. Results

Following an extensive search of Pubmed, Embase (Ovid) and Medline (Ovid) databases using the search criteria, a total 1279 papers were retrieved (Figure 1). These comprised 339 papers from Pubmed, 646 from Embase (Ovid) and 294 from Medline (OVID). 532 papers were removed due to duplication, leaving 747 papers in total. Initial screening of titles and abstract removed 379 irrelevant papers, leaving 368 papers for full text analysis. When attempting to retrieve the full texts, 127 papers were removed due to being inaccessible (Supplementary data), although review of all these papers’ titles did not reveal any which could materially contribute to the question. Another 187 full texts were also removed as they did not meet the inclusion/exclusion criteria. This left 54 papers that were included in this systematic review (Table 1). These comprised 29 case reports, 21 retrospective studies, 2 autopsy studies, 1 clinico-pathological study and 1 medical record review (Figure 1). Most cases, if not all, were cases of invasive aspergillosis.

3.1. Overall Deaths

In the 54 papers, 859 patients in total were identified as having aspergillosis and HIV/AIDS. Of these 859 patients, 6 were lost to follow up, leaving 853 patients remaining to assess outcome. Of these remaining 853 patients, 707 (83%) patients died. The included studies were published between 1985 and 2021; 29 of the 54 papers (54%) prior to 2000. Only 9 out of the 54 papers (17%) of the papers were published within the last 10 years. The largest study of 228 people in the USA found 26% of patients alive at one 1 year after the diagnosis of aspergillosis, made in life. Few studies attempted to separate total mortality from attributable mortality, but co-infection and co-morbidity was common. Libanore et al. attributed 63% of their deaths directly to invasive aspergillosis [7].
The time from diagnosis to death was recorded in 33 of the 54 studies and ranged from 1 day to 18 months. The average time from diagnosis to death was 77.5 days. In this review, 13 out of 54 papers involved autopsy diagnosis of aspergillosis in HIV patients, corresponding to 147 deaths. Subsequently, 21% of the deaths reported in this study were only diagnosed post-mortem. We did not find a correlation between CD4 count and time to death after diagnosis of aspergillosis.

3.2. Country Distribution

Aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS has a worldwide distribution and has been previously reported in Europe, Asia, Africa and North America [13]. The studies recorded in this review occurred in 16 different countries, with the majority from the USA (n = 19). We found no cases of aspergillosis recorded in HIV/AIDS patients in Africa which fulfilled our criteria other than autopsy series, which did not fulfil our criteria (no additional data [72]). The majority of deaths (55%) were recorded in the USA (Figure 2). The least number of deaths were recorded in Switzerland, the Netherlands, Australia and Brazil (Figure 2).

3.3. Organ Distribution

The majority of studies in this systematic review reported pulmonary involvement. No study described outcome from CPA in HIV positive patients separately. Extension to the pericardium can cause cardiac aspergillosis or tamponade [73] with cardiac aspergillosis reported in 3 studies in this review. Renal aspergillosis can be a result of primary infection or disseminated disease [74] and was primarily reported as the primary infection manifestation in at least 4 studies in this review with dissemination to the kidneys occurring in others. Aspergillus sinusitis was reported in at least 3 studies in this review. The commonest site of Aspergillus dissemination is the central nervous system (CNS) [73]. CNS aspergillosis was reported in at least 7 studies in this review.

3.4. CD4 Counts

CD4 count was recorded in 39 out of 54 studies, and the results ranged from 2 to >1000 cells/mm3 in the 454 (53%) patients whose CD4 count was reported. Of these 454 patients, only 8 patients (1.8%) had a CD4 > 100 cells/mm3 (Figure 3), the vast majority had a CD4 < 50 cells/mm3. The study with the largest number of participants (n = 85) that recorded a CD4 count, 64% had a CD4 count of <50 cells/mm3.

3.5. Species of Aspergillus Implicated

In the case series and reports where an isolate of Aspergillus was obtained, 130 were A. fumigatus (94%) and 4 were A. flavus, 3 A. niger complex and 2 A. terreus. Some patients had mixed colonies. Colonization is slightly more likely to involve A. flavus and A. niger complex [56].

3.6. Diagnostic Criteria

Denis et al. found that 119 of 242 (49%) patients with HIV-associated aspergillosis did not meet the 2008 European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group (EORTC)/Mycoses Study group (EORTC/MSG) diagnostic criteria [10]. In HIV patients who did not meet the EORTC criteria, the neutrophil level was higher (2205 cells/uL), compared to the lower neutrophil count in those fulfilling EORTC/MSG criteria (705 cells/uL), however they both had low CD4 counts of 20 cells/uL and 16 cells/uL, respectively, [75].

4. Discussion

Aspergillosis is an uncommon complication of HIV/AIDS. So much so, that infection by Aspergillus spp. was removed from the list of AIDS-defining illnesses in 1984 [5]. It is well documented that invasive aspergillosis is more commonly associated with a reduction in neutrophils and macrophages, rather than the depletion of the CD4 T-cell population [76]. However, some studies, have indicated the incidence of aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS is clear and increasing [17,19]. The result of this systematic review supports the link between aspergillosis and HIV/AIDS patients and demonstrates a significant mortality.
In this systematic review, 859 patients in 54 published papers were identified as having aspergillosis and HIV/AIDS and fulfilled our key criteria of documented aspergillosis and outcome information. Of the 853 patients not lost to follow up, 707 (83%) patients died. In 115 collected cases and series to 1994, 93 (81%) died, with a range from 36–100% [77]. A systematic review by Lin et al. also reported that there was a high case-fatality rate of 85.7% in patients with HIV/AIDS [78]. Similar results were seen in other studies which indicated a mortality of 70% from aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS in 19 Belgian patients (many from Africa) [79]. A national series from France of 242 validated cases of IA recorded a 3-month mortality of 68% pre-ART, coming down to 31% after introduction of ART (102).
HIV-infected patients have defects in their innate and adaptive immunity and their macrophages show poor phagocytic function and cytokine production [80,81,82]. HIV is responsible for significantly depleting CD4 T cells and therefore reducing the population of infection-specific effector cells [80]. Dysfunction of antigen-specific cytokines in alveolar T cells in HIV patients, also provides Aspergillus with an advantage of avoiding respiratory immune mechanisms [80]. Finally, interferon Y produced by T lymphocytes contributes indirectly to oxidative stress and damage of Aspergillus hyphae [82]. So, depletion of CD4 lymphocytes in HIV increases the susceptibility to this respiratory pathogen [81,82].
The majority of aspergillosis cases in HIV/AIDS patients in the last 15 years have occurred in untreated patients, those noncompliant with antiretrovirals and patients with advanced immunosuppression, i.e., CD4 counts less than 50 cells/mm3 [2]. In a literature study of 342 cases of aspergillosis in AIDS patients, CD4 counts were reported in 140 cases; and in 133 (95%) cases, the CD4 count was <100 cells/mm3 [18]. Our study found a similar low (1.8%) number of patients with a CD4 count above 100 cells/mm3. One case study reported a HIV patient who had a high CD4 count of 863 cells/mm3 who survived despite having pulmonary aspergillosis [83]. It has been suggested that HIV patients, particularly those with a CD4+ count of <100 cells/mm3 progress faster despite current therapies [27]. This indicates a need for greater clinical suspicion of aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS patients at all stages, but particularly in those with CD4 counts <100 cells/mm3 to initiate prompt, sometimes life-saving treatment.
Remarkably few reports detailing CPA in HIV positive patients are published, probably because of uncertainty about the diagnosis in many instances, and the difficulty in distinguishing CPA from subacute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Relatively recent studies have highlighted that CPA does occur with a frequency of 6–10% during anti-tuberculous therapy [21,84], and following completion of therapy [22]. However, none of these studies provide any follow up or outcome data.
The EORTC/MSG have recently updated definitions for invasive fungal infections, but to be included as a case of invasive aspergillosis, HIV patients would have to have a proven infection or either neutropenia (which is much less common these days with dolutegravir compared with zidovudine) or prolonged corticosteroid therapy to be included as probable or possible invasive aspergillosis [26]. In this series of cases, Aspergillus antigen was detected in serum in 39% and in bronchoalveolar lavage in 50% of patients. Beta-D glucan was not used as a diagnostic criterion. The EORTC criteria for ‘proven’, ‘probable’ and ‘possible’ forms of invasive aspergillosis clearly have significant limitations for advanced HIV disease and often do not correlate with clinical practice. As the vast majority of cases of aspergillosis in patients with HIV/AIDS in this systematic review had a CD4 <50 cells/mm3, healthcare staff need to consider the possibility of aspergillosis in HIV patients with low CD4 counts (<100 cells/uL) and pulmonary lesions. The call by Denis et al. to add ‘HIV-infected individual with a CD4 count <100 cells/uL’ to the EORTC criteria to ensure that clinicians do not miss aspergillosis cases has gone unheeded [10]. There is a major need for improved diagnostic and assessment criteria for aspergillosis in HIV patients [2].
As with other forms of invasive and chronic aspergillosis, multiple approaches to diagnosis are mostly likely to yield a diagnosis. These approaches should include imaging (seeking nodules and/or cavitation in the lungs), Aspergillus antigen (on serum and bronchoscopy fluid, direct microscopy of sputum, BAL fluid, paranasal sinus fluid, lesion aspiration or cutaneous lesions, fungal culture (preferably high volume culture), Aspergillus IgG antibody and if possible biopsy and histopathology. The potential value of respirarory tract Aspergillus PCR for diagnosis remains to be explored.
The time from diagnosis to death was recorded in 33 studies from this systematic review and ranged from 1 day to 18 months. Several studies involved in this review involved post-mortem diagnosis. The average time from diagnosis to death in the studies that recorded this data was 77.5 days, roughly 2.5 months. Very few patients survived longer than 100 days, regardless of CD4 count. A similar study reported a post-survival estimate of 2 months [7,46]. Denning et al. in one early USA study, estimated a post-diagnosis of aspergillosis survival of 4 months [4,7], while in Italy, Libanore et al. found a mean 4 week survival, and a maximum of 4 months [7]. Moreno et al. in Spain, suggested a similar but slightly longer survival time of 148 days (<5 months) in their cohort study [85] and a low 1-year survival rate of 39% [85]. A literature review study by Mylonakis et al. in the USA corroborated this, indicating 79% deaths within 6 months in 274 patients with aspergillosis and AIDS [18]. In 11 HIV patients with invasive aspergillosis in the USA, Marukutira et al. found a 30% mortality by day 30 to 42% at day 90 post diagnosis [86]. Libanore et al. attributed 63% of their deaths directly to invasive aspergillosis [7].
Aspergillus spp. is easily grown in culture from environmental specimens, but not from many clinical specimens, making it difficult to diagnose antemortem [50]. In addition to this, obtaining optimal specimens from patients is difficult as they’re often extremely unwell, and invasive procedures such as bronchoalveolar lavage may have increased risk of severe complications and death [20,85]. If A. fumigatus is cultured, it should be taken seriously given its dominant role in invasive aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS patients. Antinori and colleagues noticed the greatest discordance between antemortem vs. postmortem diagnosis of aspergillosis of all IFIs; only 10 of 83 cases (12%) were diagnosed before death [8]. In another study of 536 AIDS patients, aspergillosis was found at autopsy in 5.6% of cases, and only 30% of those patients were diagnosed correctly prior to death [87]. Holding et al. also found more aspergillosis cases diagnosed postmortem than antemortem, indicative of underdiagnosis and suggestive of late diagnosis in those who are diagnosed in life [5].
It is not possible from our literature review to establish whether the incidence of aspergillosis in HIV-infected patients is increasing or decreasing or static. The number of papers and cohorts published detailing aspergillosis linked to HIV/AIDS appears to be decreasing; over half the papers we identified were published prior to the year 2000 and only nine (17%) were published within the last 10 years. In a post-mortem study of fungal infections in 1630 HIV patients to 2002, invasive aspergillosis was the second most prevalent infection, which did not alter over time [8]. Denis et al. in France found a decrease over the three time periods, from 152 cases over 1992–2001 to 91 cases from 2002 to 2011 (102).
Older reports of successful therapy of aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS are few. More recent data is more encouraging. Denis et al. demonstrated the positive impact of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) and antifungal drugs with a 3-month survival increasing from 38% in 1992–1995 in the ‘pre-CART’ period, to 68% in 1996–2001 in the ‘cART development pre-voriconazole introduction’ period and 69% in 2002–2011 in the ‘cART with voriconazole’ period [10]. Denis et al. also noted that those diagnosed in the era after introduction of cART were more likely to be alive 3 months post diagnosis, then those HIV patients in the pre-cART era (hazard ratio [HR], 0.4 95% CI [0.3–0.7] [10]. Not only have antiretrovirals decreased mortality of aspergillosis in HIV, but Denis et al. showed that survival for the 90 HIV patients diagnosed in 2002–2011, was greater in the 59 patients who had been given voriconazole (HR for death, 0.1 95% CI [0.01–0.8] [10].
One significant limitation of this review was that a significant number of articles could not be accessed (Supplementary data), but no major series were omitted. Several studies were in different languages such as French, Japanese, Spanish and Russian and could not be translated and added here. Some useful data could have been missed. Many studies included in this review had limited data, e.g., one patient death in a case report. This therefore runs the risk of introducing bias. However, as the incidence of death from aspergillosis in HIV patients remains relatively low, it is expected that data sets and case reports will present only limited data, which is partly why we limited our main question to estimating mortality. Although there were 859 patients from 54 papers used in this systematic review, 228 (27%) of these patients came from a single study with conclusions mirrored by the rest of the data. Another limitation of this systematic review is that it was difficult to ascertain from the studies whether aspergillosis was the cause of death for many patients or just present at death. In some patients (as in other patient groups) aspergillosis may not have contributed to death but is more of a marker of progression of HIV/AIDS. We are unable to comment meaningfully on the radiological findings of aspergillosis in these patients, and whether they do or do not align with the EROTC/MSG precise radiological criteria.

5. Conclusions

Aspergillosis is no longer included as an AIDS defining illness; however, there are numerous cases of aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS, associated with high mortality. As a result, aspergillosis should be considered in HIV/AIDS patients with fevers of unknown origin, and/or pulmonary infiltrates, especially with any cavitation. Diagnosis can be difficult and needs to be actively sought. Early diagnosis and treatment are probably important, as shown by time trends in France. As the mean time from diagnosis to death is 77.5 days, diagnosis should be possible. Only voriconazole has been subjected to any form of evaluation n this patient population and if used it substantially reduces the risk of death.

6. Postscript

This manuscript was written to celebrate the career of Dr David A. Stevens who was David Denning’s fellowship supervisor from 1987 to 1990 at the Santa Clara Valley Medical Centre and Stanford University. The description of 13 patients with aspergillosis complicating HIV/AIDS arose from an open, prospective study of itraconazole co-ordinated by Dr Stevens. Several patients benefitted from the first oral treatment for aspergillosis, and data from some of them contributed to the approval of itraconazole in the USA and globally in 1991. One of the patients with HIV and aspergillosis grew an itraconazole-resistant strain of Aspergillus fumigatus (AF90) prior to starting itraconazole therapy (which failed) and became a critically important strain for developing and then codifying susceptibility testing of Aspergillus spp. for later EUCAST and NCCLS (CLSI) standardised methodologies. Dr. Stevens vision in offering susceptibility testing services for fungi and immersing his group in clinical studies of new antifungal agents proved to be pivotal and global contributions to the field.

Author Contributions

D.W.D. conceived the review and E.F.M. conducted all the literature searches, data extraction and primary analyses. The original draft was prepared by E.F.M. and both edited and finalized by D.W.D. All figures were prepared by E.F.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

See references and supplemental data.

Conflicts of Interest

E.F.M. declares no conflict of interest. Denning and family hold Founder shares in F2G Ltd., a University of Manchester spin-out antifungal discovery company, and share options in TFF Pharma. He acts or has recently acted as a consultant to Pulmatrix, Pulmocide, Biosergen, TFF Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer, Omega, Novacyt and Cipla. He sat on the DSMB for a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine trial. In the last 3 years, he has been paid for talks on behalf of Hikma, Gilead, BioRad, Basilea, Mylan and Pfizer. He is a longstanding member of the Infectious Disease Society of America Aspergillosis Guidelines group, the European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Aspergillosis Guidelines group and recently joined the One World Guideline for Aspergillosis.

References

  1. Kosmidis, C.; Denning, D.W. The clinical spectrum of pulmonary aspergillosis. Thorax 2015, 70, 270–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Goncer, I.R. Aspergillosis in AIDS. Available online: https://www.aspergillus.org.uk/new_treatment/aspergillosis-in-aids/ (accessed on 4 April 2022).
  3. Arunga, S.; Kintoki, G.M.; Gichuhi, S.; Onyango, J.; Ayebazibwe, B.; Newton, R.; Leck, A.; MacLeod, D.; Hu, V.H.; Burton, M.J. Risk Factors of Microbial Keratitis in Uganda: A Case Control Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2019, 27, 98–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Denning, D.W.; Follansbee, S.E.; Scolaro, M.; Norris, S.; Edelstein, H.; Stevens, D.A. Pulmonary Aspergillosis in the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 324, 654–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Holding, K.J.; Dworkin, M.S.; Wan, P.-C.T.; Hanson, D.L.; Klevens, R.M.; Jones, J.L.; Sullivan, P.S. Aspergillosis among People Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Incidence and Survival. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2000, 31, 1253–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Cornet, M.; Fleury, L.; Maslo, C.; Bernard, J.-F.; Brücker, G. Epidemiology of invasive aspergillosis in France: A six-year multicentric survey in the Greater Paris area. J. Hosp. Infect. 2002, 51, 288–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Libanore, M.; Prini, E.; Mazzetti, M.; Barchi, E.; Raise, E.; Gritti, F.M.; Bonazzi, L.; Ghinelli, F. Invasive Aspergillosis in Italian AIDS Patients. Infection 2002, 30, 341–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Antinori, S.; Nebuloni, M.; Magni, C.; Fasan, M.; Adorni, F.; Viola, A.; Corbellino, M.; Galli, M.; Vago, G.; Parravicini, C.; et al. Trends in the Postmortem Diagnosis of Opportunistic Invasive Fungal Infections in Patients With AIDS: A retrospective study of 1,630 autopsies performed between 1984 and 2002. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2009, 132, 221–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Katano, H.; Hishima, T.; Mochizuki, M.; Kodama, Y.; Oyaizu, N.; Ota, Y.; Mine, S.; Igari, T.; Ajisawa, A.; Teruya, K.; et al. The prevalence of opportunistic infections and malignancies in autopsied patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection in Japan. BMC Infect. Dis. 2014, 14, 229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Denis, B.; Guiguet, M.; de Castro, N.; Mechaï, F.; Revest, M.; Melica, G.; Costagliola, D.; Lortholary, O. Relevance of EORTC Criteria for the Diagnosis of Invasive Aspergillosis in HIV-Infected Patients, and Survival Trends Over a 20-Year Period in France. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2015, 61, 1273–1280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Azovtseva, O.V.; Viktorova, E.A. Visceral Mycoses as a Cause of Severe HIV Infection and Death. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2021, 182, 888–894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Meyohas, M.C.; Roux, P.; Poirot, J.L.; Meynard, J.L.; Frottier, J. Aspergillosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Pathol. Biol. 1994, 42, 647–651. [Google Scholar]
  13. Khoo, S.H.; Denning, D.W. Invasive Aspergillosis in Patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1994, 19, S41–S48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Baddley, J.W. Clinical risk factors for invasive aspergillosis. Med. Mycol. 2011, 49, S7–S12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Tong, K.B.; Lau, C.J.; Murtagh, K.; Layton, A.J.; Seifeldin, R. The economic impact of aspergillosis: Analysis of hospital expenditures across patient subgroups. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2009, 13, 24–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Miller, W.T., Jr.; Sais, G.J.; Frank, I.; Gefter, W.B.; Aronchick, J.M.; Miller, W.T. Pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with AIDS: Clinical and radiographic correlations. Chest 1994, 105, 37–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Barry, S.M.; Lipman, M.; Johnson, M.A.; Prentice, H.G. Respiratory infections in immunocompromised patients. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 1999, 5, 168–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Mylonakis, E.; Barlam, T.F.; Flanigan, T.; Rich, J.D. Pulmonary Aspergillosis and Invasive Disease in AIDS: Review of 342 cases. Chest 1998, 114, 251–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Woitas, R.; Rockstroh, J.; Theisen, A.; Leutner, C.; Sauerbruch, T.; Spengler, U. Changing role of invasive aspergillosis in AIDS —A case control study. J. Infect. 1998, 37, 116–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Wallace, J.M.; Lim, R.; Browdy, B.L.; Hopewell, P.C.; Glassroth, J.; Rosen, M.J.; Reichman, L.B.; Kvale, P.A. Risk Factors and Outcomes Associated With Identification of Aspergillus in Respiratory Specimens From Persons With HIV Disease. Chest 1998, 114, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Oladele, R.O.; Irurhe, N.K.; Foden, P.; Akanmu, A.S.; Gbaja-Biamila, T.; Nwosu, A.; Ekundayo, H.A.; Ogunsola, F.T.; Richardson, M.D.; Denning, D.W. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis as a cause of smear-negative TB and/or TB treatment failure in Nigerians. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2017, 21, 1056–1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Page, I.D.; Byanyima, R.; Hosmane, S.; Onyachi, N.; Opira, C.; Richardson, M.; Sawyer, R.; Sharman, A.; Denning, D.W. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis commonly complicates treated pulmonary tuberculosis with residual cavitation. Eur. Respir. J. 2019, 53, 1801184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Baluku, J.B.; Nuwagira, E.; Bongomin, F.; Denning, D.W. Pulmonary TB and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis: Clinical differences and similarities. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2021, 25, 537–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Ekeng, B.E.; Davies, A.A.; Osaigbovo, I.I.; Warris, A.; Oladele, R.O.; Denning, D.W. Pulmonary and Extrapulmonary Manifestations of Fungal Infections Misdiagnosed as Tuberculosis: The Need for Prompt Diagnosis and Management. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Chamilos, G.; Luna, M.; Lewis, R.E.; Bodey, G.P.; Chemaly, R.; Tarrand, J.J.; Safdar, A.; Raad, I.I.; Kontoyiannis, D.P. Invasive fungal infections in patients with hematologic malignancies in a tertiary care cancer center: An autopsy study over a 15-year period (1989–2003). Haematologica 2006, 91, 986–989. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  26. De Pauw, B.; Walsh, T.J.; Donnelly, J.P.; Stevens, D.A.; Edwards, J.E.; Calandra, T.; Pappas, P.G.; Maertens, J.; Lortholary, O.; Kauffman, C.A.; et al. Revised Definitions of Invasive Fungal Disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 46, 1813–1821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Addrizzo-Harris, D.J.; Harkin, T.J.; McGuinness, G.; Naidich, D.P.; Rom, W.N. Pulmonary Aspergilloma and AIDS: A comparison of HIV-infected and HIV- negative individuals. Chest 1997, 111, 612–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Payot, A.; Garbino, J.; Burkhardt, K.; Delavelle, J.; Pizzolato, G.; Kaiser, L. Primary central nervous system aspergillosis: A case report and review of the literature. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 1999, 5, 573–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  29. Bonatz, K.; Weiss, A.; Hehlmann, R.; Aßmus, H.P.; Heine, M. Gram-negative bacterial pneumonia with secondary aspergillosis in an AIDS patient. Klin. Wochenschr. 1991, 69, 853–856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Bychkov, A.V.; Dorosevich, A.E.; D’Souza, J.W. Postmortem investigations following human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int. J. Collab. Res. Intern. Med. Public Health 2009, 1, 28–46. [Google Scholar]
  31. Chevalier, K.; Barde, F.; Benhamida, S.; Le Meur, M.; Thyrault, M.; Bentoumi, Y.; Lau, N.; Lebut, J. Invasive aspergillosis and endocarditis. Rev. Med. Interne 2021, 42, 678–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Cox, J.N.; Di Dió, F.; Pizzolato, G.P.; Lerch, R.; Pochon, N. Aspergillus endocarditis and myocarditis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): A review of the literature. Virchows Arch. A Pathol. Anat. Histopathol. 1990, 417, 255–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. El-Helou, P.; Rachlis, A.; Fong, I.; Walmsley, S.; Phillips, A.; Salit, I.; Simor, A.E. Mycobacterium xenopi Infection in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1997, 25, 206–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Eza, D.; Cerrillo, G.; Moore, D.A.; Castro, C.; Ticona, E.; Morales, D.; Cabanillas, J.; Barrantes, F.; Alfaro, A.; Benavides, A.; et al. Postmortem findings and opportunistic infections in HIV-positive patients from a public hospital in Peru. Pathol.-Res. Pract. 2006, 202, 767–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Fiteni, I.; Crusells, M.; Cuesta, J.; Letona, S. Renal invasive aspergilloma: Unusual infection in AIDS. J. Infect. 1996, 33, 61–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Fung, Y.; Yeh, H.C. Renal aspergilloma mimicking a tumor on ultrasonography. J. Ultrasound Med. 1997, 16, 555–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Gasch, O.; Fernández, N.; Ayats, J.; Santin, M. Cerebral aspergillosis in an HIV-infected patient: Unsuccessful outcome despite combined antifungal therapy. Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 2009, 27, 193–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Gerard, I.; Rogiers, P.; Helbert, M.; Declercq, S.; Gordts, B. A case of fatal disseminated mucormycosis infection in an HIV-patient on plasmapheresis for atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Anaesthesiol. Intensive Ther. 2019, 51, 28–29. [Google Scholar]
  39. Groll, A.H.; Shah, P.M.; Mentzel, C.; Schneider, M.; Just-Nuebling, G.; Huebner, K. Trends in the postmortem epidemiology of invasive fungal infections at a University Hospital. J. Infect. 1996, 33, 23–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Heussel, C.P.; Kauczor, H.-U.; Heussel, G.; Thelen, M.; Jahn, B. Multiple renal aspergillus abscesses in an AIDS patient: Contrast-enhanced helical CT and MRI findings. Eur. Radiol. 1999, 9, 616–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kamiński, Z. Various opportunistic infections and neoplasms in patients dying of AIDS in the last 12 years--report based on pathomorphological investigations. Med. Sci. Monit. 2001, 7, 421–426. [Google Scholar]
  42. Keating, J.J.; Rogers, T.; Petrou, M.; Cartledge, J.D.; Woodrow, D.; Nelson, M.; Hawkins, D.A.; Gazzard, B.G. Management of pulmonary aspergillosis in AIDS: An emerging clinical problem. J. Clin. Pathol. 1994, 47, 805–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Kronish, J.W.; Johnson, T.E.; Gilberg, S.M.; Corrent, G.F.; McLeish, W.M.; Scott, K.R. Orbital Infections in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Ophthalmology 1996, 103, 1483–1492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Lanjewar, D.N.; Duggal, R. Pulmonary pathology in patients with AIDS: An autopsy study from Mumbai. HIV Med. 2001, 2, 266–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Lee, L.; Sullivan, T.J. Aspergillus sphenoid sinusitis-induced orbital apex syndrome in HIV infection. Aust. N. Z. J. Ophthalmol. 1995, 23, 327–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Lortholary, O.; Meyohas, M.-C.; Dupont, B.; Cadranel, J.; Salmon-Ceron, D.; Peyramond, D.; Simonin, D.; Armengaud, M.; Chouaid, C.; Delzant, G.; et al. Invasive aspergillosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Report of 33 cases. Am. J. Med. 1993, 95, 177–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Marchevsky, A.; Rosen, M.J.; Chrystal, G.; Kleinerman, J. Pulmonary complications of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: A clinicopathologic study of 70 cases. Hum. Pathol. 1985, 16, 659–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Markowitz, G.S.; Concepcion, L.; Factor, S.M.; Borczuk, A.C. Autopsy Patterns of Disease Among Subgroups of an Inner-City Bronx AIDS Population. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 1996, 13, 48–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Martinez, R.; de Castro, G.; Machado, A.A.; Moya, M.J. Primary aspergilloma and subacute invasive aspergillosis in two AIDS patients. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 2009, 51, 49–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  50. Minamoto, G.Y.; Barlam, T.; Els, N.J.V. Invasive Aspergillosis in Patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1992, 14, 66–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Muñoz-Bustillo, E.; Tejedor, D.; Garcia, A.; Noguerado, A. Acute nephritis by Aspergillus in a patient with AIDS. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 1996, 11, 194–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Murakawa, G.J.; Harvell, J.D.; Lubitz, P.; Schnoll, S.; Lee, S.; Berger, T. Cutaneous aspergillosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch. Dermatol. 2000, 136, 365–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Mylonakis, E.; Mileno, M.D.; Flanigan, T.; De Orchis, D.F.; Rich, J. Pulmonary invasive aspergillosis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: Report of two cases. Heart Lung 1998, 27, 63–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Nash, G.; Irvine, R.; Kerschmann, R.L.; Herndier, B. Pulmonary aspergillosis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome: Autopsy study of an emerging pulmonary complication of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Hum. Pathol. 1997, 28, 1268–1275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ohtomo, K.; Wang, S.; Masunaga, A.; Iwamoto, A.; Sugawara, I. Secondary Infections of AIDS Autopsy Cases in Japan with Special Emphasis on Mycobacterium Avium-Intracellulare Complex Infection. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2000, 192, 99–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Pursell, K.J.; Telzak, E.E.; Armstrong, N. Aspergillus Species Colonization and Invasive Disease in Patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1992, 14, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Romero, L.S.; Hunt, S.J. Hickman catheter-associated primary cutaneous aspergillosis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Int. J. Dermatol. 1995, 34, 551–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Rossouw, I.; Goedhals, D.; Van Der Merwe, J.; Stallenberg, V.; Govender, N. A rare, fatal case of invasive spinal aspergillosis in an antiretroviral-naïve, HIV-infected man with pre-existing lung colonization. J. Med. Microbiol. 2011, 60, 1534–1538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Saadat, P.; Kappel, S.; Young, S.; Abrishami, M.; Vadmal, M.S. Aspergillus fumigatus Majocchi’s granuloma in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2008, 33, 450–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Salam, A.P.; Pozniak, A.L. Disseminated aspergillosis in an HIV-positive cannabis user taking steroid treatment. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2017, 17, 882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Sambatakou, H.; Denning, D.W. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis transformed into fatal mucous impaction by immune reconstitution in an AIDS patient. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2005, 24, 628–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Senosain-Leon, V.; Hidalgo-Benites, A.; Montenegro, J.A.; D’Angelo-Piaggio, L.; Beas, R. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis with Aspergillus vertebral osteomyelitis in an HIV-infected adult: A case report. Int. J. STD AIDS 2019, 30, 1140–1142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Shankar, E.M.; Kumarasamy, N.; Rajan, R.; Balakrishnan, P.; Solomon, S.; Devaleenol, B.; Rao, U.A. Aspergillus fumigatus, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Klebsiella pneumoniae & Mycoplasma fermentans co-infection in a HIV infected patient with respiratory conditions from Southern India. Indian J. Med. Res. 2006, 123, 181–184. [Google Scholar]
  64. Teh, W.; Matti, B.S.; Marisiddaiah, H.; Minamoto, G.Y. Aspergillus Sinusitis in Patients with AIDS: Report of Three Cases and Review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1995, 21, 529–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Thakur, L.K.; Jha, K.K.; Jha, S.; Jha, A. Fulminant tracheobronchial aspergillosis. BMJ Case Rep. 2017, 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. Tumbarello, M.; Tacconelli, E.; Pagano, L.; La Barbera, E.O.; Morace, G.; Cauda, R.; Leone, G.; Ortona, L. Comparative analysis of prognostic indicators of aspergillosis in haematological malignancies and HIV infection. J. Infect. 1997, 34, 55–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Van Hal, S.; Clezy, K. Emergence of invasive cerebral aspergillosis in an HIV-positive patient on voriconazole therapy. HIV Med. 2005, 6, 45–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Vidal, J.E.; Dauar, R.F.; Melhem, M.S.; Szeszs, W.; Pukinskas, S.R.; Coelho, J.F.; Lins, D.L.; Costa, S.F.; De Oliveira, A.C.P.; Lacaz, C.D.S. Cerebral aspergillosis due to Aspergillus fumigatus in AIDS patient: First culture-proven case reported in Brazil. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 2005, 47, 161–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Wrzolek, M.A.; Brudkowska, J.; Kozlowski, P.B.; Rao, C.; Anzil, A.P.; Klein, E.A.; Del Rosario, C.; Abdu, A.; Kaufman, L.; Chandler, F.W. Opportunistic infections of the central nervous system in children with HIV infection: Report of 9 autopsy cases and review of literature. Clin. Neuropathol. 1995, 14, 187–196. [Google Scholar]
  70. Xie, L.; Gebre, W.; Szabo, K.; Lin, J.H. Cardiac Aspergillosis in Patients With Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2005, 129, 511–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Zahraa, J.; Herold, B.; Abrahams, C.; Johnson, D. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia In a child with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1996, 15, 448–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Lim, M.S.C.; Dowdeswell, R.J.; Murray, J.; Field, N.; Glynn, J.R.; Sonnenberg, P. The Impact of HIV, an Antiretroviral Programme and Tuberculosis on Mortality in South African Platinum Miners, 1992–2010. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e38598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Gaur, A.; Flynn, P.M. Emerging fungal infections in the immunocompromised host. Semin. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 2001, 12, 279–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Kümmerle, S.; Wedler, H. Renal Abscesses in an AIDS Patient Caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. Urol. Int. 1998, 61, 52–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Danion, F.; Rouzaud, C.; Duréault, A.; Poirée, S.; Bougnoux, M.-E.; Alanio, A.; Lanternier, F.; Lortholary, O. Why are so many cases of invasive aspergillosis missed? Med. Mycol. 2019, 57, S94–S103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Kaur, R.; Mehra, B.; Dhakad, M.S.; Goyal, R.; Dewan, R. Pulmonary aspergillosis as opportunistic mycoses in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: Report from a tertiary care hospital in North India. Int. J. Health Sci. 2017, 11, 45–50. [Google Scholar]
  77. Denning, D. Therapeutic Outcome in Invasive Aspergillosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1996, 23, 608–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Lin, S.-J.; Schranz, J.; Teutsch, S.M. Aspergillosis Case-Fatality Rate: Systematic Review of the Literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001, 32, 358–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Laurent, F.; Martin, C.; De Wit, S. Aspergillosis in hiv patients (P): A case series. Acta Clin. Belg. 2012, 67, 450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Rule, R.; Mitton, B.; Govender, N.P.; Hoffmann, D.; Said, M. Spinal epidural abscess caused by Aspergillus spp masquerading as spinal tuberculosis in a person with HIV. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2021, 21, e356–e362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Armstrong-James, D.; Meintjes, G.; Brown, G.D. A neglected epidemic: Fungal infections in HIV/AIDS. Trends Microbiol. 2014, 22, 120–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Warris, A.; Netea, M.G.; Verweij, P.E.; Gaustad, P.; Kullberg, B.-J.; Weemaes, C.M.R.; Abrahamsen, T.G. Cytokine responses and regulation of interferon-gamma release by human mononuclear cells to Aspergillus fumigatus and other filamentous fungi. Med. Mycol. 2005, 43, 613–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  83. Adejumo, A.; Christian, A.; Cosmina, Z.; Tjack, S. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in HIV patient with high CD4 count. Am. J. Case Rep. 2009, 10, 103–106. [Google Scholar]
  84. Namusobya, M.; Bongomin, F.; Mukisa, J.; Olwit, W.K.; Batte, C.; Mukashyaka, C.; Mande, E.; Kwizera, R.; Denning, D.W.; Rhein, J.; et al. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis with persisting symptoms in Uganda. Mycoses 2022, 65, 625–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Moreno, A.; Elias, M.J.P.; Casado, J.; Navas, E.; Pintado, V.; Fortún, J.; Quereda, C.; Guerrero, A. Role of antiretroviral therapy in long-term survival of patients with AIDS-related pulmonary aspergillosis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 19, 688–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Marukutira, T.; Huprikar, S.; Azie, N.; Quan, S.-P.; Meier-Kriesche, H.-U.; Horn, D.L. Clinical characteristics and outcomes in 303 HIV-infected patients with invasive fungal infections: Data from the Prospective Antifungal Therapy Alliance registry, a multicenter, observational study. HIV/AIDS-Res. Palliat. Care 2014, 6, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  87. Antinori, S.; Esposito, R.; Galimberti, L.; Vago, L.; Nebuloni, M. HIV-associated respiratory disease. Lancet 1996, 348, 892–893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Jof 08 01131 g001 550
Figure 1. Flow chart indicated process of study selection.
Figure 1. Flow chart indicated process of study selection.
Jof 08 01131 g001
Jof 08 01131 g002 550
Figure 2. Numbers of deaths linked to aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS patients in publications by country. Categories are >50 patients, 10–50 patients and <10 patients.
Figure 2. Numbers of deaths linked to aspergillosis in HIV/AIDS patients in publications by country. Categories are >50 patients, 10–50 patients and <10 patients.
Jof 08 01131 g002
Jof 08 01131 g003 550
Figure 3. The average CD4 count vs. number of HIV/AIDS patients diagnosed with aspergillosis. Results taken from the 54 publications reviewed.
Figure 3. The average CD4 count vs. number of HIV/AIDS patients diagnosed with aspergillosis. Results taken from the 54 publications reviewed.
Jof 08 01131 g003
Table
Table 1. Summary of 54 studies of death from aspergillosis and HIV/AIDS.
Table 1. Summary of 54 studies of death from aspergillosis and HIV/AIDS.
No.ReferenceYearStudy TypeCountryMedian CD4 (Cells/mm3)Patients with HIV & Aspergillosis (n)Patient Deaths with HIV & Aspergillosis (n)Average Time from Diagnosis of Aspergillosis to Death
1[27]1997RetrospectiveUSA<100104/8 (followed up)-
2[8]2006Retrospective Italy308383-
3[11]2021Retrospective Russia42855-
4[28]1999Case report & autopsy--11-
5[29]1991Case report & autopsy-1101131 days
6[30]2009Case report & autopsyRussia-11-
7[31]2021Case reportFrance-1120 days
8[6]2002Retrospective France55731/54 (followed up)-
9[32]1990Case report and autopsySwitzer-land1211-
10[4]1999Case reportsUSA-1310/12
(followed up)		3 months
11[33]1997RetrospectiveCanada11111 month
12[34]2006Retrospective Peru -2244 days
13[35]1999Case reportSpain7011-
14[36]1997Case reportUSA401118 months
15[37]2009Case reportSpain221178 days
16[38]2019Case report Nether-lands-11-
17[39]1996Retrospective Germany-3737-
18[40]1998Case reportGermany401114 days
19[5]2000RetrospectiveUSA-2282283 months
20[41]2001Retrospective Poland-1111-
21[42]1994Retrospective UK56.31189.4 weeks
22[43]1994Retrospective USA6.3437.6 months
23[44]2009Autopsy India-44-
24[45]1995Case reportAustralia140112.5 weeks
25[7]2002Retrospective Italy954541 month
26[46]1993Retrospective France5033318 weeks
27[47]1985Clinico-pathologic USA-11-
28[48]1996Retrospective autopsy USA-1414-
29[49]2009Case reportBrazil1051111 months
30[16]1994Retrospective USA34.7 (n = 6)3624-
31[50]1992Retrospective autopsy USA-1815-
32[51]1996Case ReportSpain6911<1 month
33[52]2000Retrospective USA3.81123 months
34[53]1998Case reportsUSA102211 days
35[54]1997Retrospective autopsy USA321717-
36[55]2000Retrospective autopsy Japan511212-
37[56]1992Medical record reviewUSA49 (n = 16)45417 months
38[57]1995Case reportCanada-111 month
39[58]2011Case report-239111 month
40[59]2008Case reportUSA30116 weeks
41[60]2017Case reportUK>1000111 day
42[61]2005Case report-340112 weeks
43[62]2019Case report-120113 months
44[63]2006Case reportIndia20211-
45[64]1995Case reportsUSA2533-
46[65]2017Case reportUSA350113 days
47[66]1993Retrospective Italy481191.3 months
48[67]2005Case report-80113 months
49[68]2005Case reportBrazil8113 months
50[20]1998Case-control USA10191930 days
51[19]1998Retrospective Germany710919.5 days
52[69]1995AutopsyUSA-22-
53[70]2005Case report/
autopsy		-791115 days
54[71]1996Case reportUSA211<1 month
Total = 859Total = 707
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Denning, D.W.; Morgan, E.F. Quantifying Deaths from Aspergillosis in HIV Positive People. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 1131. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111131

AMA Style

Denning DW, Morgan EF. Quantifying Deaths from Aspergillosis in HIV Positive People. Journal of Fungi. 2022; 8(11):1131. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111131

Chicago/Turabian Style

Denning, David W., and Ellen Frances Morgan. 2022. "Quantifying Deaths from Aspergillosis in HIV Positive People" Journal of Fungi 8, no. 11: 1131. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111131

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop