Submicron Particles during Macro- and Micro-Weldings Procedures in Industrial Indoor Environments and Health Implications for Welding Operators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
Stochastic Lung 60th Percentile | Data |
---|---|
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) | 3300 mL |
Upper Respiratory Tract (URT) volume | 50 mL |
Particle density | 3.7 g cm−3 |
Breathing frequency | 20 per minute |
Tidal volume | 1250 mL |
Inspiratory fraction | 0.5 |
Pause fraction | 0 |
Breathing scenario | nasal |
3. Experimental Section
3.1. Materials and Methods
3.2. Welding and Brazing Operations
4. Conclusions
- ✓
- very fast evolution of the particle size in the range of 5.6–560 nm during welding operations, in particular those in the nucleation mode;
- ✓
- importance of measures at high temporal resolution (1 s) performed by FMPS for evaluating the particle size distributions during generation;
- ✓
- the total deposited alveolar surface area values are 20-fold higher for Cu-Al soldering than the Sn-Pb micro-welding. To the authors’ knowledge, studies correlating surface area to health effects have not been performed on metal fumes; nonetheless, the data obtained in this study represent a useful reference to interpret the health effects observed for welders;
- ✓
- due to their high particle deposition efficiency in the human respiratory system, such particles pose a (potential) risk to the human health associated with their high number, concentration and/or surface area. They should be the subject of further studies to continuously evaluate and monitor their effects.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Avino, P.; Manigrasso, M.; Carrai, P.; Rocchi, C.; Guerriero, E.; Russo, M.V. Ultrafine particles and chemical risk in automobile repair shops. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2014, 23, 2956–2966. [Google Scholar]
- Howe, A.M. Assessment of Exposure to Chemical Agents in Welding Fume: Final Report. HSL/2000/15; 2000. Available online: http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2000/hsl00-15.pdf (accessed on April 2015). [Google Scholar]
- Riediger, G.; Möhlmann, C. Ultrafeine aerosole an arbeitsplätzen. Gefahrstoffe 2001, 61, 429–434. [Google Scholar]
- Antonini, J.M. Health effects of welding. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2003, 33, 61–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Antonini, J.M.; Taylor, M.D.; Zimmer, A.T.; Roberts, J.R. Pulmonary responses to welding fumes: Role of metal constituents. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 2004, 67, 233–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pires, I.; Quintino, L.; Miranda, R.M.; Gomes, J.F.P. Fume emissions during gas metal arc welding. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2006, 88, 385–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomes, J.F.P.; Albuquerque, P.C.S.; Miranda, R.M.M.; Vieira, M.T.F. Determination of airborne nanoparticles from welding operations. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 2012, 75, 747–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maynard, A.D.; Zimmer, A.T. Evaluation of grinding aerosols in terms of alveolar dose: The significance of using mass, surface area and number metrics. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2002, 46, 315–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenkins, N.T.; Eagar, T.W. Chemical analysis of welding fume particles. Weld. J. 2005, 84, 87s–93s. [Google Scholar]
- Timings, R. Fabrication and Welding Engineering, 1st ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2008; pp. 467–519. [Google Scholar]
- Messler, R.W., Jr. Principles of Welding—Processes, Physics, Chemistry, and Metallurgy, 1st ed.; Wiley-VCH Verlag: Weinheim, Germany, 2004; pp. 3–40. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, K.H. Welding Handbook Filler Materials for Manual and Automatic Welding, 5th ed.; Esab AB: Göteborg, Sweden, 1991; pp. 123–146. [Google Scholar]
- O’Brien, R. Jefferson’s Welding Encyclopedia, 18th ed.; American Welding Society: Miami, FL, USA, 1997; pp. 683–684. [Google Scholar]
- Khan, I. Welding Science and Technology, 1st ed.; New Age International (P) Ltd.: New Delhi, India, 2007; pp. 37–68. [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz, M.M.; Aircraft, S. Introduction to brazing and soldering. In ASM Handbook—Welding, Brazing, and Soldering vol. 6, 9th ed.; Olson, D.L., Siewert, T.A., Liu, S., Edwards, G.R., Eds.; American Society for Metals International: Materials Park, OH, USA, 1983; pp. 270–481. [Google Scholar]
- Zhou, Y. Microjoining and Nanojoining, 1st ed.; Woodhead Publishing Ltd.; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2008; pp. 1–810. [Google Scholar]
- Fukumoto, S.; Tsubakino, H.; Zhou, Y. Resistance microwelding of fine nickel wires. In ASM Conference Proceedings: Joining of Advanced and Specialty Materials VII, Proceedings of the Conference on Materials Solutions 2004 on Joining of Advanced and Specialty Materials, Columbus, OH, USA, 18–20 October 2004; ASM International: Materials Park, OH, USA, 2005; pp. 168–173. [Google Scholar]
- Pawlak, R.; Kostrubiec, F.; Tomczyk, M.; Walczak, M. Laser-induced change of electrical resistivity of metals and its applications. In Proceedings of SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering, Proceedings of the Conference on Lasers in Material Processing and Manufacturing II, Beijing, China, 10 November 2004; The International Society for Optical Engineering: Bellingham, WA, USA, 2005. Article number 55. pp. 349–360. [Google Scholar]
- Fendrock, J.J.; Hong, L.M. Parallel-gap welding to very-thin metallization for high temperature microelectronic interconnects. IEEE Trans. Compon. Hybrids Manuf. Technol. 1990, 13, 376–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinmeier, D. Downsizing in the world of resistance welding. Weld. J. 1998, 77, 39–47. [Google Scholar]
- Ely, K.J.; Zhou, Y. Microresistance spot welding of Kovar, steel, and nickel. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 2001, 6, 63–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mo, B.; Guo, Z.; Li, Y.; Huang, Z.; Wang, G. Mechanism of resistance microwelding of insulated copper wire to phosphor bronze sheet. Mater. Trans. 2011, 52, 1252–1258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fukumoto, S.; Zhou, Y. Mechanism of resistance microwelding of crossed fine nickel wires. Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 2004, 35, 3165–3176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ventrella, V.A.; Berretta, J.R.; de Rossi, W. Application of pulsed Nd: YAG laser in thin foil microwelding. Int. J. Mater. Product Technol. 2014, 48, 194–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ely, K.J.; Hall, P.; Zhou, Y. Microwelding methods in medical components and devices. In Joining and Assembly of Medical Materials and Devices, 1st ed.; Zhou, Y.N., Breyen, M., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials: Cambridge, UK, 2013; pp. 47–78. [Google Scholar]
- Zimmer, A.T.; Biswas, P. Characterization of the aerosols resulting from arc welding processes. Aerosol Sci. 2001, 32, 993–1008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Avino, P.; Manigrasso, M.; Fanizza, C.; Carrai, P.; Solfanelli, L. Particelle submicrometriche in fumi derivanti da operazioni di saldatura e di fusione di leghe metalliche. La Med. del Lav. 2013, 104, 335–350. [Google Scholar]
- Stoeger, T.; Reinhard, C.; Takenaka, S.; Schroeppel, A.; Karg, E.; Ritter, B.; Heyder, J.; Schulz, H. Instillation of six different ultrafine carbon particles indicates a surface area threshold dose for acute lung inflammation in mice. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 328–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oberdörster, G. Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2001, 74, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kreyling, W.; Semmler, M.; Mayer, P.; Takenaka, S.; Schulz, H.; Oberdörster, G.; Ziesenis, A.; Erbe, F. Translocation of ultrafine insoluble iridium particles from lung epithelium to extrapulmonary organs is size dependent but very low. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 2002, 65, 511–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Avino, P.; Casciardi, S.; Fanizza, C.; Manigrasso, M. Deep investigation of ultrafine particles in urban air. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2011, 11, 654–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pourtaghi, G.H.; Kakooei, H.; Salem, M.; Pourtaghi, F.; Lahmi, M.A. Pulmonary effects of occupational exposure to welding fumes. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2009, 3, 3291–3296. [Google Scholar]
- Fanizza, C.; Casciardi, S.; Avino, P.; Manigrasso, M. Measurements and characterization by Transmission Electron Microscopy of ultrafine particles in the urban air of Rome. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2010, 19, 2026–2032. [Google Scholar]
- Lehnert, M.; Pesch, B.; Lotz, A.; Pelzer, J.; Kendzia, B.; Gawrych, K.; Heinze, E.; van Gelder, R.; Punkenburg, E.; Weiss, T.; et al. Exposure to inhalable, respirable, and ultrafine particles in welding fume. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2012, 56, 557–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA). Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Welding Fumes. Available online: http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/weldingfumes/recognition.html (accessed on March 2015).
- Oberdörster, G.; Finkelstein, J.N.; Johnston, C.; Gelein, R.; Cox, C.; Baggs, R.; Elder, A.C. Acute pulmonary effects of ultrafine particles in rats and mice. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 2000, 96, 5–74. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Oberdörster, G. Toxicology of ultrafine particles: In vivo studies. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2000, 358, 2719–2740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donaldson, K.; Stone, V.; Seaton, A.; MacNee, W. Ambient particle inhalation and the cardiovascular system: Potential mechanisms. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 523–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oberdörster, G.; Oberdörster, E.; Oberdörster, J. Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 823–840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buonanno, G.; Morawska, L.; Stabile, L. Exposure to welding particle in automotive plants. J. Aerosol Sci. 2011, 42, 295–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomes, J.; Albuquerque, P.; Miranda, R.; Santos, T.; Vieira, M. Comparison of deposited surface area of airborne ultrafine particles generated from two welding processes. Inhal. Toxicol. 2012, 24, 774–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manigrasso, M.; Avino, P. Fast evolution of urban ultrafine particles: Implications for deposition doses in the human respiratory system. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 51, 116–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manigrasso, M.; Stabile, L.; Avino, P.; Buonanno, G. Influence of measurement frequency on the evaluation of short-term dose of sub-micrometric particles during indoor and outdoor generation events. Atmos. Environ. 2013, 67, 130–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manigrasso, M.; Buonanno, G.; Fuoco, F.C.; Stabile, L.; Avino, P. Aerosol deposition doses in the human respiratory tree of electronic cigarette smokers. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 196, 257–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manigrasso, M.; Buonanno, G.; Stabile, L.; Morawska, L.; Avino, P. Particle doses in the pulmonary lobes of electronic and conventional cigarette users. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 202, 24–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stabile, L.; Buonanno, G.; Avino, P.; Fuoco, F.C. Dimensional and chemical characterization of airborne particles in schools: respiratory effects in children. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2013, 13, 887–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Avino, P.; Lopez, F.; Manigrasso, M. Regional deposition of submicrometer aerosol in the human respiratory system determined at 1-s time resolution of particle size distribution measurements. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2013, 13, 1702–1711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manigrasso, M.; Avino, P.; Fanizza, C. Ultrafine particles in the urban area of Rome. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2009, 18, 1341–1347. [Google Scholar]
- Buonanno, G.; Bernabei, M.; Avino, P.; Stabile, L. Occupational exposure to airborne particles and other pollutants in an aviation base. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 170, 78–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- MacNee, W.; Li, X.Y.; Gilmour, S.; Donaldson, K. Systemic effects of PM10. Inhal. Toxicol. 2000, 12, 233–244. [Google Scholar]
- Donaldson, K.; Stone, V.; Clouter, A.; Renwick, L.; Mac-Nee, W. Ultrafine particles. Occup. Environ. Med. 2001, 58, 211–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buonanno, G.; Stabile, L.; Avino, P.; Vanoli, R. Dimensional and chemical characterization of particles at a downwind receptor site of a waste-to-energy plant. Waste Manag. 2010, 30, 1325–1333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buonanno, G.; Stabile, L.; Avino, P.; Belluso, E. Chemical, dimensional and morphological ultrafine particle characterization from a waste-to-energy plant. Waste Manag. 2011, 31, 2253–2262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marini, S.; Buonanno, G.; Stabile, L.; Avino, P. A benchmark for numerical scheme validation of airborne particle exposure in street canyons. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2015, 22, 2051–2063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection. International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), Publication 66; Elsevier Science: Oxford, UK, 1994. [Google Scholar]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Avino, P.; Manigrasso, M.; Pandolfi, P.; Tornese, C.; Settimi, D.; Paolucci, N. Submicron Particles during Macro- and Micro-Weldings Procedures in Industrial Indoor Environments and Health Implications for Welding Operators. Metals 2015, 5, 1045-1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/met5021045
Avino P, Manigrasso M, Pandolfi P, Tornese C, Settimi D, Paolucci N. Submicron Particles during Macro- and Micro-Weldings Procedures in Industrial Indoor Environments and Health Implications for Welding Operators. Metals. 2015; 5(2):1045-1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/met5021045
Chicago/Turabian StyleAvino, Pasquale, Maurizio Manigrasso, Pietro Pandolfi, Cosimo Tornese, Diego Settimi, and Nicola Paolucci. 2015. "Submicron Particles during Macro- and Micro-Weldings Procedures in Industrial Indoor Environments and Health Implications for Welding Operators" Metals 5, no. 2: 1045-1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/met5021045