Sulfur and Carbon–Oxygen Isotopic Geochemistry and Fluid Inclusion Characteristics of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Mineralization, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for the Source and Evolution of Hydrothermal Fluids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geology of the Yolindi Area
3. Deposit Geology of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Mineralization
4. Sampling and Analytical Methods
5. Results
5.1. Ore Mineralogy and Paragenesis
5.2. Fluid Inclusion Studies
5.2.1. Fluid Inclusion Petrography
5.2.2. Microthermometry Results
5.3. Stable Isotope Data
5.3.1. δ34S Isotope of Sulfides
5.3.2. Carbon (δ13C) and Oxygen (δ18O) Isotope Studies
6. Discussion
6.1. Sulfur Isotopic Compositions and Their Geological Implications
6.2. Source of Carbon
6.3. Calcite-Forming Fluid Sources
6.4. Composition of Hydrothermal Solutions
6.5. Evolution of Ore-Forming Fluids
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Meinert, L.D.; Dipple, G.M.; Nicolescu, S.; Hedenquist, J.W.; Thompson, J.F.H.; Goldfarb, R.J.; Richards, J.P. World Skarn Deposits. In Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume; Society of Economic Geologists: Littleton, CO, USA, 2005; pp. 299–336. [Google Scholar]
- Yigit, O. A prospective sector in the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt: Geology and geochronology of mineral deposits in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. Ore Geol. Rev. 2012, 46, 118–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuşcu, İ. Skarns and skarn deposits of Turkey. In Mineral Resources of Turkey; Pirajno, F., Ünlü, T., Dönmez, C., Şahin, M.B., Eds.; Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2019; Volume 16, pp. 283–336. [Google Scholar]
- Kaya, M.; Kumral, M.; Yalçın, C.; Abdelnasser, A. Genesis and Evolution of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Deposit in the Biga Peninsula (NW Turkey): Insights from Genetic Relationships with Calc-Alkaline Magmatic Activity. Minerals 2023, 13, 1304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaya, M.; Kumral, M.; Abdelnasser, A.; Yalçın, C.; Öztürk, S.; Bayram, H.N.; Tanç-Kaya, B. Evolution of the hydrothermal fluids of the Yolindi Fe-Cu skarn deposit, Biga peninsula, NW Turkiye: Evidence from carbon-oxygen isotopic variations of calcite minerals. In Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 April 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Kuşcu, İ.; Tosdal, R.M.; Gençalioğlu-Kuşcu, G. Porphyry-Cu Deposits of Turkey. In Mineral Resources of Turkey; Pirajno, F., Ünlü, T., Dönmez, C., Şahin, M.B., Eds.; Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2019; pp. 337–425. [Google Scholar]
- Karaman, M.; Kumral, M.; Yildirim, D.K.; Doner, Z.; Afzal, P.; Abdelnasser, A. Delineation of the porphyry-skarn mineralized zones (NW Turkey) using concentration–volume fractal model. Geochemistry 2021, 4, 125802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdelnasser, A.; Kumral, M.; Zoheir, B.; Yilmaz, H. Evolution of the Tepeoba porphyry-skarn Cu-Mo-Au deposit, NW Turkey: New mineralogical and geochemical findings. Ore Geol. Rev. 2022, 147, 104967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yildirim, D.K. Genesis of the Halılar Metasediment-Hosted Cu-Pb (±Zn) Mineralization, NW Turkey: Evidence from Mineralogy, Alteration, and Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry. Minerals 2022, 12, 991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meinert, L.D. Skarns and Skarn Deposits. Geosci. Can. 1992, 19, 145–162. [Google Scholar]
- Özden, S.; Över, S.; Poyraz, S.A.; Güneş, Y.; Pınar, A. Tectonic implications of the 2017 Ayvacık (Çanakkale) earthquakes, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2018, 154, 125–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okay, A.; Siyako, M.; Burkan, K. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Biga Peninsula, northwest Turkey. Bull.-Tech. Univ. Istanb. 1991, 44, 191–256. [Google Scholar]
- Göncüoğlu, M.C. Introduction to the Geology of Turkey: Geodynamic Evolution of the Pre-Alpine and Alpine Terranes; ODTÜ Jeoloji Mühendisliği Bölümü: Ankara, Turkey, 2010; pp. 1–66. [Google Scholar]
- Birkle, P.; Satir, M.; Erler, A.; Ercan, T.; Bingol, E.; Orcen, S. Dating, geochemistry and geodynamic significance of the Tertiary magmatism of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. In Geology of the Black Sea Region: Ankara, Turkey; Erler, A., Ed.; Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA): Ankara, Turkey, 1995; pp. 171–180. [Google Scholar]
- Yılmaz, Y.; Genç, Ş.; Karacık, Z.; Altunkaynak, Ş. Two contrasting magmatic associations of NW Anatolia and their tectonic significance. J. Geodyn. 2001, 31, 243–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özdamar, Ş.; Roden, M.F.; Zou, H.; Billor, M.Z.; Hames, W.; Georgiev, S.; Dunkl, I. Petrogenesis of oligocene plutonic rocks in western Anatolia (NW Turkey): Insights from mineral and rock chemistry, Sr-Nd isotopes, and U-Pb, Ar-Ar and (U-Th)/He geochronology. Geochemistry 2021, 81, 125747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özdamar, Ş.; Zou, H.; Billor, M.Z.; Hames, W.E. Petrogenesis of mafic microgranular enclaves (MMEs) in the oligocene-miocene granitoid plutons from northwest Anatolia, Turkey. Geochemistry 2021, 81, 125713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamacı, Ö.; Altunkaynak, Ş. Petrological insights into connections between the S- and I-type magmatic associations in metamorphic core complexes: A case study of the Çataldağ metamorphic core complex (NW Turkey). Lithos 2023, 464–465, 107433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özdamar, Ş.; Zou, H.; Billor, M.Z.; Hames, W.; Roden, M.F.; Sarıkaya, O.; Georgiev, S. Petrogenesis, geochronology and thermochronology of Oligocene to Miocene Western Anatolia granitoid plutons in Turkey. Lithos 2024, 464–465, 107430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Genç, Ş.; Altunkaynak, Ş. On the Eybek granite (Biga Peninsula, NW Anatolia): A new evaluation in the light of new geochemical data. J. Earth Sci. Appl. Res. Cent. Hacet. Univ. 2007, 28, 75–98. [Google Scholar]
- Yılmaz, Y.; Karacık, Z. Geology of the northern side of the Gulf of Edremit and its tectonic significance for the development of the Aegean grabens. Geodin. Acta 2001, 14, 31–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yigit, O. Mineral deposits of Turkey in relation to Tethyan metallogeny: Implications for future mineral exploration. Econ. Geol. 2009, 104, 19–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duru, M.; Pehlivan, S.; Dönmez, M.; Ilgar, A.; Akçay, A. Geological Map of The Balıkesir-i18 Quadrangle; General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration: Ankara, Turkey, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Aysal, N. Petrology of the Mesozoic–Tertiary Magmatism and Metamorphism in Northern Biga (Çanakkale); Istanbul University: Istanbul, Turkey, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Aysal, N.; Ustaomer, T.; Ongen, S.; Keskin, M.; Koksal, S.; Peytcheva, I.; Fanning, M. Origin of the Early-Middle Devonian magmatism in the Sakarya Zone, NW Turkey: Geochronology, geochemistry and isotope systematics. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2012, 45, 201–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aslan, Z.; Demir, H.; Altın, İ. U–Pb zircon geochronology and petrology of the early Miocene Göloba and Şaroluk plutons in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for post-collisional magmatism and geodynamic evolution. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 2020, 172, 103998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aysal, N. Mineral chemistry, crystallization conditions and geodynamic implications of the Oligo–Miocene granitoids in the Biga Peninsula, Northwest Turkey. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2015, 105, 68–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krushensky, R. Neogene calc-alkaline extrusive and intrusive rocks of the karalar-yesiller area: Northwest Anatolia, Turkey. Bull. Volcanol. 1975, 39, 336–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dönmez, M.; Akçay, A.E.; Genç, Ş.C.; Şükrü, A. Middle-late Eocene volcanism and marine ignimbrites in Biga peninsula (NW Anatolia-Turkey). Bull. Miner. Res. Explor. 2005, 131, 21. [Google Scholar]
- Karacik, Z.; Yilmaz, Y.; Pearce, J.A. The Dikili-Çandarlı volcanics, Western Turkey: Magmatic interactions as recorded by petrographic and geochemical features. Turk. J. Earth Sci. 2007, 16, 493–522. [Google Scholar]
- Meinert, L.D. Skarn zonation and fluid evolution in the Groundhog mine, Central mining district, New Mexico. Econ. Geol. 1987, 82, 523–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roedder, E. Volume 12: Fluid inclusions. Rev. Mineral. 1984, 12, 644. [Google Scholar]
- Shepherd, T.; Rankin, A.; Alderton, D. A Practical Guide to Fluid Inclusion Studies; Blackie and Son Ltd.: Glasgow, UK, 1985; p. 239. [Google Scholar]
- Van den Kerkhof, A.M.; Hein, U.F. Fluid inclusion petrography. Lithos 2001, 55, 27–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darling, R.S. An extended equation to calculate NaCl contents from final clathrate melting temperatures in H2O-CO2-NaCl fluid inclusions: Implications for PT isochore location. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1991, 55, 3869–3871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Archer, D.G. Thermodynamic properties of the NaBr+ H2O system. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1991, 20, 509–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bodnar, R. Revised equation and table for determining the freezing point depression of H2O-NaCl solutions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1993, 57, 683–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steele-MacInnis, M.; Lecumberri-Sanchez, P.; Bodnar, R.J. Short note: HokieFlincs_H2O-NaCl: A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for interpreting microthermometric data from fluid inclusions based on the PVTX properties of H2O-NaCl. Comput. Geosci. 2012, 49, 334–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakker, R.J. Package FLUIDS 1. Computer programs for analysis of fluid inclusion data and for modelling bulk fluid properties. Chem. Geol. 2003, 194, 3–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.-G.; Frantz, J.D. Determination of the homogenization temperatures and densities of supercritical fluids in the system NaCl-KCl-CaCl2-H2O using synthetic fluid inclusions. Chem. Geol. 1987, 64, 335–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Czamanske, G.K.; Rye, R.O. Experimentally determined sulfur isotope fractionations between sphalerite and galena in the temperature range 600 degrees to 275 degrees C. Econ. Geol. 1974, 69, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohmoto, H.; Rye, R. Isotopes of sulfur and carbon. In Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1979; pp. 509–567. [Google Scholar]
- Valley, J.W.; Taylor, H.P.; O’Neil, J.R. Stable Isotopes in High Temperature Geological Processes; Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG: Berlin, Germany, 2018; Volume 16. [Google Scholar]
- Scheele, N.; Hoefs, J. Carbon isotope fractionation between calcite, graphite and CO2: An experimental study. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 1992, 112, 35–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neil, J.R.; Clayton, R.N.; Mayeda, T.K. Oxygen Isotope Fractionation in Divalent Metal Carbonates; University of Chicago: Chicago, IL, USA, 1969. [Google Scholar]
- Sheppard, S.M. Isotope geothermometry. In Thermométrie et Barométrie Géologiques; Lagache, M., Ed.; French Society of Mineralogy and Crystallography: Paris, France, 1984; pp. 349–412. [Google Scholar]
- Hoefs, J. Stable Isotope Geochemistry; Springer Science & Business Media: Cham, Switzerland, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Taylor, J. Water/rock interactions and the origin of H2O in granitic batholiths: Thirtieth William Smith lecture. J. Geol. Soc. 1977, 133, 509–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.-J.; Chen, H.-Y.; Zaw, K.; Pirajno, F.; Zhang, Z.-J. Geodynamic settings and tectonic model of skarn gold deposits in China: An overview. Ore Geol. Rev. 2007, 31, 139–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dawson, K.M.; Eckstrand, O.R.; Sinclair, W.D.; Thorpe, R.I. Skarn Deposits. In Geology of Canadian Mineral Deposit Types; Geological Society of America: Boulder, CO, USA, 1995; Volume 8, p. 650. [Google Scholar]
- Ault, W.U.; Kulp, J.L. Sulfur isotopes and ore deposits. Econ. Geol. 1960, 55, 73–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaussidon, M.; Lorand, J.-P. Sulphur isotope composition of orogenic spinel lherzolite massifs from Ariege (North-Eastern Pyrenees, France): An ion microprobe study. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1990, 54, 2835–2846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCuaig, T.C.; Kerrich, R. P—T—T—Deformation—Fluid characteristics of lode gold deposits: Evidence from alteration systematics. Ore Geol. Rev. 1998, 12, 381–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rollinson, H. Using Geochemical Data; Longman Scientific & Technical Publisher: Harlow, UK, 1993; p. 352. [Google Scholar]
- Richards, J.P. Alkalic-type epithermal gold deposits—A review. Magmas Fluids Ore Depos. Mineral. Assoc. Can. Short Course 1995, 23, 367–400. [Google Scholar]
- Chambers, L. Sulfur isotope study of a modern intertidal environment, and the interpretation of ancient sulfides. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1982, 46, 721–728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strauss, H. The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfur through time. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 1997, 132, 97–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hutchison, W.; Finch, A.A.; Boyce, A.J. The sulfur isotope evolution of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids: Insights into ore-forming processes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2020, 288, 176–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Q.; Xie, G.; Mao, J.; Li, W.; Li, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhang, P. Mineralogical and sulfur isotopic evidence for the incursion of evaporites in the Jinshandian skarn Fe deposit, Edong district, Eastern China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2015, 113, 1253–1267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rajabpour, S.; Hassanpour, S.; Jiang, S.-Y. Physicochemical evolution and mechanism of a skarn system: Insights from the world-class Mazraeh Cu deposit, NW Iran. GSA Bull. 2023, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oyman, T.; Bozan, S.; Çiçek, M.; Chiaradia, M.; Kuşcu, İ.l. Metal source and the origin of the Darıderesi Pb-Zn (Ag) veins in the Balya Mining District, NW Türkiye: Constraints from ore mineral chemistry, fluid inclusions and S-Pb isotopic signatures. All Earth 2023, 35, 210–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demirale, G. Geology and Genesis of the Çataltepe (Lapseki/Çanakkale) Pb–Zn ± Cu ± Ag Deposit; Ankara University: Ankara, Turkey, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Akıska, S.; Demirela, G.; Sayili, S. Geology, mineralogy and the Pb, S isotope study of the Kalkim Pb-Zn+/-Cu deposits, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. J. Geosci. 2013, 58, 379–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shimazaki, H.; Yamamoto, M. Sulfur isotope ratios of some Japanese skarn deposits. Geochem. J. 1979, 13, 261–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, X.-L.; Wang, K.-Y.; Li, S.-D.; Shi, K.-T.; Wang, W.-Y.; Yang, H. Geology, fluid inclusion, and H–O–S–Pb isotopic study of the Shenshan skarn Fe–Cu deposit, Southern Great Xing’an Range, Northeast China. J. Geochem. Explor. 2019, 200, 167–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiménez-Franco, A.; Canet, C.; Alfonso, P.; González-Partida, E.; Rajabi, A.; Escalante, E. The Velardeña Zn-(Pb-Cu) skarn-epithermal deposits, central-northern Mexico: New physical-chemical constraints on ore-forming processes. Bol. Soc. Geol. Mex. 2020, 72, A270719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sasaki, A.; Ishihara, S. Sulfur isotopic composition of the magnetite-series and ilmenite-series granitoids in Japan. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 1979, 68, 107–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seal, R.R. Sulfur isotope geochemistry of sulfide minerals. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2006, 61, 633–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, B. Stable isotope geochemistry of ore-forming fluids. Mineral. Assoc. Can. Short Course Handb. 1987, 13, 337–445. [Google Scholar]
- Ohmoto, H.; Goldhaber, M. Sulfur and carbon isotopes. Geochem. Hydrothermal Ore Depos. 1997, 3, 517–611. [Google Scholar]
- Yılmazer, E.; Güleç, N.; Kuşcu, İ.; Lentz, D.R. Geology, geochemistry, and geochronology of Fe-oxide Cu (±Au) mineralization associated with Şamlı pluton, western Turkey. Ore Geol. Rev. 2014, 57, 191–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bozan, S.; Uçar, İ. Geology, Geochemistry and isotope characteristics of Karadoru/Yenice (Çanakkale) Pb-Zn-Cu (Au-Ag) Deposit. In Proceedings of the 72nd Geological Congress of Turkey with International Participation, Ankara, Türkiye, 28 January–1 February 2019; pp. 411–413. [Google Scholar]
- Sipahi, F.; Akpınar, İ.; Eker, Ç.S.; Kaygusuz, A.; Vural, A.; Yılmaz, M. Formation of the Eğrikar (Gümüşhane) Fe–Cu skarn type mineralization in NE Turkey: U–Pb zircon age, lithogeochemistry, mineral chemistry, fluid inclusion, and OHCS isotopic compositions. J. Geochem. Explor. 2017, 182, 32–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohmoto, H. Systematics of sulfur and carbon isotopes in hydrothermal ore deposits. Econ. Geol. 1972, 67, 551–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerlach, T.M.; Taylor, B.E. Carbon isotope constraints on degassing of carbon dioxide from Kilauea Volcano. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1990, 54, 2051–2058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poreda, R.; Craig, H.; Arnorsson, S.; Welhan, J. Helium isotopes in Icelandic geothermal systems: I. 3He, gas chemistry, and 13C relations. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1992, 56, 4221–4228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Leary, M.H. Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Bioscience 1988, 38, 328–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sano, Y.; Marty, B. Origin of carbon in fumarolic gas from island arcs. Chem. Geol. 1995, 119, 265–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tedesco, D.; Scarsi, P. Long term variations of the 3He/4He ratio and other noble gas isotopes ratios at Vulcano island (southern Italy): How the volcano works. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 104, 10499–10510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minissale, A. Origin, transport and discharge of CO2 in central Italy. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2004, 66, 89–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clark, I. Groundwater Geochemistry and Isotopes; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Weinlich, F.H. Isotopically light carbon dioxide in nitrogen rich gases: The gas distribution pattern in the French Massif Central, the Eifel and the western Eger Rift. Ann. Geophys. 2005, 48, 19–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gilfillan, S.M.; Lollar, B.S.; Holland, G.; Blagburn, D.; Stevens, S.; Schoell, M.; Cassidy, M.; Ding, Z.; Zhou, Z.; Lacrampe-Couloume, G. Solubility trapping in formation water as dominant CO2 sink in natural gas fields. Nature 2009, 458, 614–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Darrah, T.H.; Tedesco, D.; Tassi, F.; Vaselli, O.; Cuoco, E.; Poreda, R.J. Gas chemistry of the Dallol region of the Danakil Depression in the Afar region of the northern-most East African Rift. Chem. Geol. 2013, 339, 16–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Güleç, N.; Hilton, D.R. Turkish geothermal fields as natural analogues of CO2 storage sites: Gas geochemistry and implications for CO2 trapping mechanisms. Geothermics 2016, 64, 96–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohwada, M.; Satake, H.; Nagao, K.; Kazahaya, K. Formation processes of thermal waters in Green Tuff: A geochemical study in the Hokuriku district, central Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 2007, 168, 55–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barry, P.; Hilton, D.; Füri, E.; Halldórsson, S.; Grönvold, K. Carbon isotope and abundance systematics of Icelandic geothermal gases, fluids and subglacial basalts with implications for mantle plume-related CO2 fluxes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2014, 134, 74–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Venturi, S.; Tassi, F.; Bicocchi, G.; Cabassi, J.; Capecchiacci, F.; Capasso, G.; Vaselli, O.; Ricci, A.; Grassa, F. Fractionation processes affecting the stable carbon isotope signature of thermal waters from hydrothermal/volcanic systems: The examples of Campi Flegrei and Vulcano Island (southern Italy). J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 2017, 345, 46–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tassi, F.; Feyzullayev, A.A.; Bonini, M.; Sani, F.; Aliyev, C.S.; Darrah, T.H.; Vaselli, O.; Baghirli, R.J. Mantle vs. crustal fluid sources in the gas discharges from Lesser Caucasus and Talysh Mountains (Azerbaijan) in relation to the regional geotectonic setting. Appl. Geochem. 2020, 118, 104643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demény, A.; Harangi, S. Stable isotope studies and processes of carbonate formation in Hungarian alkali basalts and lamprophyres: Evolution of magmatic fluids and magma-sediment interactions. Lithos 1996, 37, 335–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demény, A.; Ahijado, A.; Casillas, R.; Vennemann, T.W. Crustal contamination and fluid/rock interaction in the carbonatites of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain): A C, O, H isotope study. Lithos 1998, 44, 101–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, Y.; Chen, J. Stable Isotope Geochemistry; Science Press: Beijing, China, 2000; pp. 62–118. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zhou, J.-X.; Huang, Z.-L.; Lv, Z.-C.; Zhu, X.-K.; Gao, J.-G.; Mirnejad, H. Geology, isotope geochemistry and ore genesis of the Shanshulin carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposit, southwest China. Ore Geol. Rev. 2014, 63, 209–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, H.P.; Frechen, J.; Degens, E.T. Oxygen and carbon isotope studies of carbonatites from the Laacher See District, West Germany and the Alnö District, Sweden. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1967, 31, 407–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Veizer, J.; Hoefs, J. The nature of O18/O16 and C13/C12 secular trends in sedimentary carbonate rocks. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1976, 40, 1387–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schidlowski, M. Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: Evolution of a concept. Precambrian Res. 2001, 106, 117–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Planavsky, N.; Partin, C.; Bekker, A. Carbon Isotopes as a Geochemical Tracer. In Encyclopedia of Astrobiology; Gargaud, M., Irvine, W.M., Amils, R., Cleaves, H.J., Pinti, D.L., Quintanilla, J.C., Rouan, D., Spohn, T., Tirard, S., Viso, M., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2015; pp. 366–371. [Google Scholar]
- Sheppard, S.M. Characterization and isotopic variations in natural waters. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 1986, 16, 165–183. [Google Scholar]
- Rollinson, H.; Pease, V. (Eds.) Using Stable Isotope Data. In Using Geochemical Data: To Understand Geological Processes, 2nd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2021; pp. 219–285. [Google Scholar]
- Neng, J.; Jiuhua, X.; Mianxin, S. Fluid inclusion characteristics of mesothermal gold deposits in the Xiaoqinling district, Shaanxi and Henan provinces, People’s Republic of China. Miner. Depos. 1999, 34, 150–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Germann, K.; Lüders, V.; Banks, D.A.; Simon, K.; Hoefs, J. Late Hercynian polymetallic vein-type base-metal mineralization in the Iberian Pyrite Belt: Fluid-inclusion and stable-isotope geochemistry (S-O-H-Cl). Miner. Depos. 2003, 38, 953–967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massawe, R.J.R.; Lentz, D.R. Petrogenesis and U–Pb (titanite) age of Cu–Ag skarn mineralization in the McKenzie Gulch area, northern New Brunswick, Canada. J. Geochem. Explor. 2022, 232, 106902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ren, T.; Zhong, H.; Zhang, X.C. Fluid inclusion and stable isotope (C, O and S) constraints on the genesis of the high-grade Langdu Cu skarn deposit in Yunnan, SW China. Ore Geol. Rev. 2020, 118, 103354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilkinson, J. Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal ore deposits. Lithos 2001, 55, 229–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niu, P.-P.; Jiang, S.-Y.; Xiong, S.-F.; Hu, Q.-S.; Xu, T.-l. Fluid Inclusions and H-O-C-S Isotopes of the Wushan Copper Polymetallic Deposit in the Suizao Area, Hubei Province: Implications for Ore Genesis. Geofluids 2019, 2019, 3431909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bodnar, R. Fluid-inclusion evidence for a magmatic source for metals in porphyry copper deposits. In Magmas, Fluids and Ore Deposits; Thompson, J., Ed.; Short Course Series; Mineralogical Association of Canada: Quebec, QC, Canada, 1995; Volume 23, pp. 139–152. [Google Scholar]
- Altunkaynak, Ş.; Yılmaz, Y. The Mount Kozak magmatic complex, Western Anatolia. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 1998, 85, 211–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erkül, S.T. Petrogenetic evolution of the Early Miocene Alaçamdağ volcano-plutonic complex, northwestern Turkey: Implications for the geodynamic framework of the Aegean region. Int. J. Earth Sci. 2012, 101, 197–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erkül, S.T.; Erkül, F. Comment on “Al-in-Hornblende Thermobarometry and Sr-Nd-O-Pb Isotopic Compositions of the Early Miocene Alaçam Granite in NW Anatolia (Turkey)”. Turk. J. Earth Sci. 2013, 22, 354–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karacık, Z.; Yılmaz, Y. Geology of the ignimbrites and the associated volcano–plutonic complex of the Ezine area, northwestern Anatolia. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 1998, 85, 251–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasözbek, A.; Erdoǧan, B.; Satir, M.; Siebel, W.; Akay, E.; Doǧan, G.D.; Taubald, H. Al-in-hornblende thermobarometry and Sr-Nd-O-Pb isotopic compositions of the early miocene Alaçam granite in NW Anatolia (Turkey). Turk. J. Earth Sci. 2012, 21, 37–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bouabdellah, M.; Jabrane, R.; Margoum, D.; Sadequi, M. Skarn to Porphyry-Epithermal Transition in the Ouixane Fe District, Northeast Morocco: Interplay of Meteoric Water and Magmatic-Hydrothermal Fluids. In Mineral Deposits of North Africa; Bouabdellah, M., Slack, J.F., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 201–225. [Google Scholar]
- Kwak, T.; Tan, T.H. The importance of CaCl2 in fluid composition trends; evidence from the King Island (Dolphin) skarn deposit. Econ. Geol. 1981, 76, 955–960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lai, J.; Chi, G.; Peng, S.; Shao, Y.; Yang, B. Fluid evolution in the formation of the fenghuangshan Cu-Fe-Au deposit, Tongling, Anhui, China. Econ. Geol. 2007, 102, 949–970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Mineral | Andradite | Grossular | Quartz | Calcite | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stage | Prograde | Retrograde | Retrograde | Retrograde | Retrograde | Retrograde | |
Zone | Proximal | Proximal | Proximal | Intermediate | Distal | Proximal | |
Inclusion type (primary) | L–V | L–V | L–V | L–V | L–V | L–V | |
Eutectic temperature (°C) | Interval | From −37.8 to −12.1 | From −8.8 to −1.6 | From −26.7 to −0.8 | From −26.6 to −1.7 | From −8.6 to −1.9 | From −17.8 to −1.1 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | −24.1 | −4.9 | −7.0 | −11.9 | −4.7 | −6.3 | |
Tm-ice (°C) | Interval | From −25.8 to −8.5 | From −5.3 to −0.4 | From −13.5 to −0.5 | From −17.6 to −0.4 | From −3.4 to −0.9 | From −12.3 to −0.2 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | −17.6 | −1.8 | −3.7 | −6.7 | −1.8 | −2.3 | |
Th-tot (°C) | Interval | From 359.0 to 412.2 | From 280.1 to 372.6 | From 256.0 to 394.3 | From 299.8 to 370 | From 296.1 to 336.5 | From 197.7 to 317.8 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | 390.2 | 348.1 | 304.9 | 337.9 | 319.5 | 280.4 | |
Salinity %NaCl eq. | Interval | From 12.3 to 26.1 | From 0.7 to 8.3 | From 0.9 to 17.3 | From 0.7 to 20.7 | From 1.6 to 5.6 | From 0.4 to 16.2 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | 26.1 | 2.9 | 5.7 | 9.4 | 3.1 | 3.6 | |
Density (g/cm−3) | Interval | From 0.69 to 0.91 | From 0.58 to 0.77 | From 0.56 to 0.88 | From 0.65 to 0.86 | From 0.65 to 0.77 | From 0.71 to 0.89 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | 0.81 | 0.64 | 0.75 | 0.75 | 0.70 | 0.78 | |
Ph (bar) | Interval | From 145.3 to 261.4 | From 63.1 to 211.8 | From 43.1 to 255.4 | From 82.4 to 185.7 | From 80.4 to 138.4 | From 14.7 to 107.2 |
n | 10 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 12 | 24 | |
Avg | 217.8 | 163.2 | 100.1 | 135.6 | 111.3 | 67.1 |
Sample ID | Mineral | Host | Metamorphic Grade | Measured δ34S (‰) | at T °C | δ34SH2S Fluid (‰) (3) | Error Range | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BG-220A | Pyrite | Endoskarn | −4.56 | 390 (1) | −5.47 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-220B | Pyrite | Endoskarn | −4.11 | 390 (1) | −5.02 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-220C | Pyrite | Endoskarn | −3.98 | 390 (1) | −4.89 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-85A | Pyrite | Endoskarn | 0.57 | 390 (1) | −0.34 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-85B | Pyrite | Endoskarn | 0.27 | 390 (1) | −0.64 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-87 | Pyrite | Endoskarn | 0.33 | 390 (1) | −0.58 | ± | 0.18 | |
BG-102 | Pyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −3.65 | 390 (1) | −4.56 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-33A | Pyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −0.17 | 390 (1) | −1.08 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-103 | Pyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −2.73 | 390 (1) | −3.64 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-102 | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −4.13 | 390 (1) | −5.04 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-102A | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −4.23 | 390 (1) | −5.14 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-33A | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Prograde | −0.25 | 390 (1) | −1.16 | ± | 0.18 |
BG-237F2 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.54 | 323 (2) | −4.67 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-237F2 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.49 | 323 (2) | −4.62 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-31A | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −2.59 | 323 (2) | −3.72 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-44 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.7 | 323 (2) | −4.83 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-44 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.9 | 323 (2) | −5.03 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-1 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.64 | 323 (2) | −4.76 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-10 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.48 | 323 (2) | −4.61 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-11 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −4.08 | 323 (2) | −5.21 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-11 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −4.26 | 323 (2) | −5.39 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-8 | Pyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.01 | 323 (2) | −4.14 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-31A | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −2.67 | 323 (2) | −3.80 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-10 | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.84 | 323 (2) | −4.96 | ± | 0.23 |
BSD-8 | Chalcopyrite | Proximal | Retrograde | −3.41 | 323 (2) | −4.54 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-100 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −9.44 | 323 (2) | −10.57 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-101 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −8.92 | 323 (2) | −10.05 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-205 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.72 | 323 (2) | −6.85 | ± | 0.23 |
BSS-4 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.81 | 323 (2) | −6.94 | ± | 0.23 |
BSS-5 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.46 | 323 (2) | −6.58 | ± | 0.23 |
BSS-6 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.52 | 323 (2) | −6.65 | ± | 0.23 |
BSS-6 | Pyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.59 | 323 (2) | −6.72 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-101 | Chalcopyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −8.87 | 323 (2) | −10.00 | ± | 0.23 |
BG-205 | Chalcopyrite | Intermediate | Retrograde | −5.79 | 323 (2) | −6.92 | ± | 0.23 |
Sample ID | Zone | δ13C (‰VPDB) | δ18O (‰SMOW) | δ13CCO2 (‰) (1) | δ18OH2O (‰) (2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BG-41 | Prograde | −1.98 | 6.22 | −8.79 | 6.07 |
BG-237e | Prograde | −2.64 | 6.26 | −9.45 | 6.11 |
BG-237d2 | Prograde | −2.19 | 6.55 | −9.00 | 6.39 |
BSS-9 | Prograde | 0.09 | 9.05 | −6.72 | 8.84 |
BG-204b | Prograde | −1.61 | 10.38 | −8.42 | 10.14 |
BG-62 | Prograde | −1 | 13.94 | −7.81 | 13.61 |
BG-39A | Prograde | −2.3 | 15.18 | −9.11 | 14.82 |
BG-50 | Prograde | −0.65 | 18.14 | −7.46 | 17.70 |
BG-39b | Prograde | −2.35 | 11.60 | −9.16 | 11.32 |
BG-39c | Prograde | −2.01 | 13.80 | −8.82 | 13.47 |
BG-39d | Prograde | −1.66 | 12.50 | −8.47 | 12.20 |
BSD-10 | Retrograde | −3.23 | 0.94 | −10.04 | 0.92 |
BSD-1 | Retrograde | −3.17 | 1.20 | −9.98 | 1.17 |
BG-35A | Retrograde | −2.49 | 1.56 | −9.30 | 1.52 |
BSD-14 | Retrograde | −2.25 | 2.09 | −9.06 | 2.04 |
BSS-12 | Retrograde | −3.8 | 2.97 | −10.61 | 2.90 |
BSS-13 | Retrograde | −3.6 | 3.06 | −10.41 | 2.99 |
BSS-14 | Retrograde | −3 | 3.12 | −9.81 | 3.05 |
BSS-15 | Retrograde | −2.9 | 3.45 | −9.71 | 3.37 |
BSS-16 | Retrograde | −2.76 | 3.62 | −9.57 | 3.53 |
BG-304 | Marble | 1.89 | 21.73 | −4.92 | 21.21 |
BG-305 | Marble | 2.23 | 21.61 | −4.58 | 21.10 |
BG-306 | Marble | 1.96 | 21.71 | −4.85 | 21.19 |
BG-307 | Marble | 2.07 | 21.67 | −4.74 | 21.15 |
BG-308 | Marble | 2.16 | 21.63 | −4.65 | 21.12 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kaya, M.; Kumral, M.; Yalçın, C.; Abdelnasser, A. Sulfur and Carbon–Oxygen Isotopic Geochemistry and Fluid Inclusion Characteristics of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Mineralization, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for the Source and Evolution of Hydrothermal Fluids. Minerals 2023, 13, 1542. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121542
Kaya M, Kumral M, Yalçın C, Abdelnasser A. Sulfur and Carbon–Oxygen Isotopic Geochemistry and Fluid Inclusion Characteristics of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Mineralization, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for the Source and Evolution of Hydrothermal Fluids. Minerals. 2023; 13(12):1542. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121542
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaya, Mustafa, Mustafa Kumral, Cihan Yalçın, and Amr Abdelnasser. 2023. "Sulfur and Carbon–Oxygen Isotopic Geochemistry and Fluid Inclusion Characteristics of the Yolindi Cu-Fe Skarn Mineralization, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for the Source and Evolution of Hydrothermal Fluids" Minerals 13, no. 12: 1542. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121542