Ecologies of Scale: Multifunctionality Connects Conservation and Agriculture across Fields, Farms, and Landscapes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Understanding and Applying Multifunctionality
2.1. General Concepts
2.2. Examples of Multifunctional Landscapes
2.2.1. Intensively-Farmed Landscapes in the US Corn Belt
2.2.2. Commercial Conservancies in Southern African Rangeland
3. Ecological Concepts of Biodiversity
3.1. Species Richness
- Alpha diversity—Species richness within a locally-defined spatial extent, or patch.
- Beta diversity—The degree of change, or turnover, of species among local patches. Patches with dissimilar species composition have high beta diversity, and vice versa, irrespective of alpha diversity within patches.
- Gamma diversity—Conceptually, represents species richness at the broadest spatial scale (landscape, region, continent, etc.). Mathematically, a combination of alpha and beta diversity at fine spatial scales.
3.2. Functional and Response Diversity
Spatial Extent | Relevant Ecological Principles | Agricultural Applications |
---|---|---|
Field | Species richness vs. functional diversity (alpha diversity) | Composition of production stands: many species, or many types? |
Diversity—productivity relationships: selection effect (non-transgressive overyielding) vs. complementarity (transgressive overyielding) | Farmers might target several highly-productive species with different functions. | |
Diversity enhances stability | Mixed stands might show less variability in function, especially if climate becomes unpredictable. | |
Farm | Marginal vegetation, beta diversity, and trophic complexity | Increase habitat for associated biodiversity, including beneficial invertebrate predators and pollinators. |
Integrating crops and livestock increases product diversity, adds value, and closes nutrient cycles. | ||
Landscape | Countryside biogeography; patch-matrix-corridor concept vs. habitat contours | Lower-quality areas as stepping stones to connect high-quality habitat. |
Heterogeneity-based rangeland management | Ecologically-analogous disturbance patterns reconcile livestock production, biodiversity conservation. |
4. Agroecology: Biodiversity at Fine Spatial Scales
4.1. The Natural Ecosystem Analogy Concept
4.2. Does Diversity Enhance Ecosystem Function?
4.2.1. Diversity and Productivity: Ecology of Mixed Stands
4.2.2. Multiple-Crop Systems: Diversity over Time
4.2.3. Diversity-Stability Relationships
4.3. Diversity at the Farm Scale
4.3.1. Insect Management: Preventing Pests and Bolstering Beneficial Bugs
4.3.2. Integrating Crops and Livestock
5. Landscape Ecology: Ecological Diversity at Broad Spatial Scales
5.1. Principles of Landscape Ecology
5.2. Countryside Biogeography
5.3. Heterogeneity-Based Rangeland Management
5.4. Biofuels and the Future of Agricultural Landscapes
6. Conclusions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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McGranahan, D.A. Ecologies of Scale: Multifunctionality Connects Conservation and Agriculture across Fields, Farms, and Landscapes. Land 2014, 3, 739-769. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3030739
McGranahan DA. Ecologies of Scale: Multifunctionality Connects Conservation and Agriculture across Fields, Farms, and Landscapes. Land. 2014; 3(3):739-769. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3030739
Chicago/Turabian StyleMcGranahan, Devan Allen. 2014. "Ecologies of Scale: Multifunctionality Connects Conservation and Agriculture across Fields, Farms, and Landscapes" Land 3, no. 3: 739-769. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3030739