1. Introduction
As a basic concept in the field of supramolecular chemistry, non-covalent interactions have usually been a main research focus, with important applications in crystal materials, catalysis, biological systems, molecular recognition, molecular assembly, and other fields [
1,
2,
3,
4]. Non-covalent interactions may be conveniently divided into several categories depending on the type of Lewis acid involved. The interaction arising from a group 13 element acting as a Lewis acid center and a Lewis base is called a triel bond (TrB). Because of its unique molecular structure and wide variability, TrBs have wide applications in asymmetric catalysis, material construction, dye synthesis, molecular recognition, hydrogen storage, and other fields [
5,
6,
7]. The electron-deficient p orbitals of group 13 elements give rise to a π-hole, which is a positive electrostatic potential region above the triangular plane containing the group 13 element and the three nearest atoms to which it is bonded. This region has an attraction to electrons and can theoretically interact with the negative potential region of a Lewis base to form a TrB.
As early as the 1960s, TrB complexes were thought to be a theoretical possibility, but there was no concept of a TrB at that time. A 1:1 van der Waals complex was found in the infrared spectrum study of a mixture of ethylene and propylene with BF
3, in which an electron-deficient BF
3 was combined with a C=C double bond [
8]. Subsequent studies found similar effects between BF
3 and other Lewis bases (NH
3, HCN, NCPh, and N(CH
3)
3) [
9,
10,
11]. In addition, very weak coordination bonds in the gas phase and very short N–B distances in the solid phase were found in the spectral and theoretical studies of X–CH
3CN–BF
3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I), which suggested the existence of an N–B interaction [
12]. Grabowski’s computational work on the complexes formed by TrF
3 (Tr = B and Al) and a Lewis base found that the N of linear HCN and N
2, acting as Lewis base centers, interacted with B and Al in a direction perpendicular to the BF
3 and AlF
3 planes to form a C
3v symmetric complex [
13]. In a subsequent study, Grabowski defined this interaction as a TrB [
14]. It was also found that this interaction is often very strong, and its stability mainly depends on the charge transfer caused by the coordination. The properties of Lewis base centers, the ability of substituents to absorb electrons, and the feedback bond effect are also closely related to the strength of the interaction [
14]. The situation for other group 13 elements acting as Lewis acid centers has also been studied; the TrB formed by B appears to be the weakest, and different Tr atoms exhibit different properties as Lewis acid centers.
Neutral electron lone pair molecules are a common TrB electron donor, the most typical of which is related to research on the N-Lewis bases. The TrB formed by NCH, NH
3, and N
2 as electron donors has been extensively studied using theoretical calculations [
13,
14]. NH
3 is the strongest electron donor and N
2 is the weakest. The N in pyrazine can form stable TrBs, and the substituent effect on the strength of TrBs has also been studied. The change in the relative stabilities of Lewis acids containing Al and Ga is consistent with the electron-withdrawing ability of the substituents, i.e., F > Cl >Br > H, whereas B shows the opposite trend. Covalency also plays an important role in the formation of TrBs, and the orbital effect on B is stronger than on Al and Ga [
15]. Transition metals (TMs) contain more lone-pair electrons. The shorter B–TM distance and the pyramidalization of the chemical environment around group 13 atoms in their complexes suggest the existence of strong TrBs [
16]. The NPA analysis of the Au–B interaction in [PBCy
2AuCl] and [(PBFlu) AuCl] shows that there is charge transfer from Au to B, and that the amount of charge transfer is inversely related to the interaction distance [
17,
18]. Theoretical studies of AuCl
2–BX
3 (X = H, F, Cl, F, and I) indicate that orbital interactions dominate the TrBs of most systems [
19].
The interactions of CN
−, NO
−, OH
− and HF, HCl, and XF (X = Cl, Br) with TrF
3 (Tr = Al and Ga) have also been studied. When TrF
3 is surrounded by 2–4 ligand molecules, the structures formed differ according to the number of ligands. With an increase in the number of ligands, when forming triel bonds with TrF
3, the ligands tend to form a cage-like structure around the central negative ion, and the triel bonds thus formed tend to be stronger than those formed by hydrogen or halogen bonds [
20].
In addition, the π-electron system is also a good electron donor. Although there are few reports on its participation in the formation of TrBs, it is often found to have a strong interaction with Lewis acids, such as the A–H···π hydrogen bond formed by π-electrons as a proton acceptor [
21]. The theoretical study of the interaction between AlX
3, BX
3 (X = H, F, Cl, Br), and ethylene/acetylene found that strong TrBs are usually formed with a partially covalent character and that the orbital interaction originates from the formation of a 3c-2e orbital [
22].
Because B is electron-deficient, it has several different bonding modes, such as those via the double bond formed in transition metal–boron complexes [
23]. In the past few decades, the study of homonuclear and heteronuclear polybonding molecules based on the group IIIA-V elements has been widely undertaken and has become a research “hot topic” in academic and industrial laboratories [
24,
25,
26,
27]. It is difficult to establish multiple bonds between two group IIIA atoms (B, Al, Ga, In, and Tl) because of their electron-deficient properties. However, the synthesis and separation of diboron compounds with B–B multi-bonds have been successfully realized by many chemists. In 2007, carbene stabilization technology [
28] was applied to the reduction of haloboranes and the synthesis of boron polybonds [
29]. Through the reduction of nitroheterocyclic carbene-stabilized tribromoboranes, via the catalysis of potassium-containing graphite, the neutral bicarbene dibromodiene containing B-B bonds was prepared and separated. The B–B separation is very short (1.561 Å), indicating double bonds between the two B atoms.
Braunschweig et al. carried out the reaction of diborodiene with selenium or tellurium in 2016 to obtain diborodivinane or diborotellurine [
30], respectively. Because carbon is more electronegative, it cannot participate in the reduction of elements with lower electronegativity, but the high reducibility of the B=B double bond can stimulate the reaction of C with Se and Te. The ability to donate electrons to multiple bonds between boron atoms suggests that diborides can be used as nucleophilic reagents. Diboride can attack one of the two Te atoms of diaryl telluride to form a salt composed of diborotelluride cations and aromatic telluride anions.
By studying the complex formed by compounds with M=M (M = B, Al, Ga, In, and Tl) double bonds and two ligands with large spatial volumes (L
1L
2M = ML
1L
2 (L
1 = tBu
2MeSi and L
2 = NHCiPr)), it was found that the central element M plays an important role in its geometry. Computations show that with an increase in the central M atomic number, the bond distances (M–M, M–C, and M–Si) increase and the dihedral angles (M
b–M
a–Si
a–C
a and M
a–M
b–Si
b–Cb) decrease [
31].
There are few studies on the formation of TrBs by π-electron systems acting as electron donors, and, through an extensive literature search, it was found that the B=B double bond can participate in reactions as an electron donor, which opens up the possibility of a B=B double bond acting as a Lewis base to form TrBs. In the present work, we performed a theoretical study of TrBs with (BH)2(NHC)2 (NHC is a nitrogen heterocyclic carbene) as a Lewis base and TrPhX2 (Tr = B, Al, and Ga; X = F, Cl, Br, CH3, and OH) as a Lewis acid. The factors affecting the strength of a TrB were investigated by changing the Lewis acid center and substituents, and this TrB was analyzed by using MEP, NCI, NBO, and AIM computational methods.
4. Discussion
(BH)
2(NHC)
2 can combine with TrPhX
2 to form several interactions at different sites in the resulting complexes and the interaction energy for these complexes lies between 49.37 kcal/mol and 100.16 kcal/mol in magnitude. The strength of the intermolecular interaction is related to the size or depth of the π-hole or σ-hole. Generally, the deeper the hole, the stronger the resulting composite. However, this is not evident in the present study. For example, AlPhF
2 has the deepest π-hole, but the TrB interaction energy of the complex formed with (BH)
2(NHC)
2 is not the most strongly bound because the interaction strength is not solely determined by the electrostatic interaction. After the formation of the complex between (BH)
2(NHC)
2 and TrPhX
2, the geometries of the individual monomers experience varying degrees of deformation, relative to the monomers. The degree of deformation is assessed by the angle between the substituent X and the Tr atom (α). The greater the deviation from 120°, the greater the deformation. The data in
Table 1 shows that the deformation is most severe when Tr = B.
The larger deformation in the BPhX
2 complexes, vis-à-vis the Al and Ga analogs, is probably due to the relatively small size of B, which allows the TrPhX
2 moiety to get closer to the B=B electron cloud of the (BH)
2(NHC)
2 moiety, more so than the other Tr atoms (see the shorter binding distances in
Table 1 for the B species). Furthermore, the closer distance facilitates a greater charge transfer between the individual monomers (
Table 6) and, consequently, stronger triel bonds in the BPhX
2 complexes (
Table 4).
The deformation of the individual monomers on complexation is likely due to intermolecular repulsion which causes the previously mentioned pyramidalization of the TrX
2 groups (adjacent to the benzene ring) of the TrPhX
2 subunit
, as well as distortion of the (BH)
2(NHC)
2 subunit, from their original planar geometries when isolated. This deformation increases with the size of the halogen atom substituents (i.e., in the order F < Cl < Br) and a consequence of this geometric change is the appearance of a dipole moment due to the TrX
2 group and perpendicular to the B=B bond which, along with the charge transfer, reinforces the TrB interaction. The data for the increased deformation angles (α and ∆α in
Table 1), increased dipole moments (µ in
Table 1), shorter binding distances (R
1 in
Table 2), increased TrB interaction energy (
Table 4), increased AIM electron densities (
Table 5), and increased charge transfer (
Table 6) for the corresponding dimers in going from F to Cl to Br supports the preceding analysis. We also noticed this important role of deformation in our previous study of triel bonds involving Au atoms acting as electron donors [
19].
There are various different interactions between the atoms constituting (BH)2(NHC)2 and TrPhX2. For the total interaction energy, the heavier Tr atoms give rise to larger total interaction energies, inconsistent with the trend for positive electrostatic potentials for Tr in TrPhX2. On the other hand, substituents modify the total interaction energy. When the substituent is a halogen, the trend is roughly the same when the Tr atom is B or Al. When Tr=Ga, it is different from the former two, possibly because Ga is heavier. CH3 substitution weakens the total attraction, and the weakening effect of CH3 also differs for different Tr atoms. When Tr is Ga, the weakening effect is the largest, about 30 kcal/mol, greater than that for B and Al. This shows that CH3-substituted compounds can play a role in regulating intermolecular interactions when used as electron acceptors.
For the same substituents, the interaction energy of the TrB in the dimer increases in the order AlPhX2 < GaPhX2 < BPhX2, similar to the trend for the positive electrostatic potentials of Tr atoms in TrPhX2. For varying halogen atoms, the interaction energy of the TrB for different Tr systems increases as the halogen atom becomes larger, which is opposite to the trend for the positive electrostatic potentials of the Tr atom in the TrPhX2 molecule.
In addition to the TrBs, most of the complexes have hydrogen bonds, and the interaction energy of most hydrogen bonds is less than that of the TrBs, consistent with the work of Matondo [
43]. However, there are also exceptions. For example, in (BH)
2(NHC)
2···GaPh(OH)
2, the two types of interactions are similar in magnitude, but the hydrogen bond is slightly stronger than the TrB. In general, the interaction energy of hydrogen bonds increases with an increase in the electronegativity of the halogen atoms. When OH is the substituent, the hydrogen bond energy in the complex is greater than in the halogen-atom substitution complex.
(BH)
2(NHC)
2 contains two nitroheterocyclic carbenes (NHCs). The synthesis and structure of NHC have been previously reviewed [
23,
24,
25,
26,
27,
28,
29,
30,
31]. It is often used directly or indirectly (in the present study) as an electron donor. There is also a negative electrostatic potential region above the N atom in (BH)
2(NHC)
2 so there is a weak interaction between the atoms in the benzene ring and NHC, as seen in
Figure 4.